Physics Notes Grade 10

Skills
- Scientific notation
- Using your calculator
- Conversion of units (symbols)
- The SI units (Si = systemic international
- Changing the subject of formulae
- Rates
- Ratios
- Skills for practical investigations
- Lab apparatus & lab rules
- Basic trigonometry skills

Matters and Materials

- Classification of matter
- State of matter and the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
- The Atom: The basic building blocks of matter
- The Periodic Table
- Chemical Bonding

Classification of Matter
Properties of Materials
1. Strength
2. Thermal and electrical conductivity
3. Brittleness, malleability or ductility
4. Magnetic or non-magnetic properties
5. Density
6. Melting point (MP) or boiling point (BP)
Ferromagnetic elements: Iron
Ferromagnetic = good
Nickel magnetic properties
Cobalt
Substances
- Elements
- Compounds
- Mixtures
o Homogenous mixture
o Heterogeneous mixture
Homogenous mixture = solution

Solute Solvent
(The substance that dissolves (The component that
in the solvent) represents the largest
amount)
Solution: a homogenous mixture
Solute: the substance that dissolves in a solvent
Solvent: the component that represents the largest amount of the
solution
Soluble: dissolves in water

Examples of solutions:
- Gaseous solutions
- Liquid solutions
- Solid solutions

Heterogeneous mixture: any combination of substances that doesn’t

dissolve in each other composition isn’t uniform
Names and Metal Non-metal
Cation Anion
Functions Positive/+ve Negative/-ve
- Neutral atoms = O
- Charged atoms = IONS
- Ionic compounds: made of anions and cations
- Metal cations take their name from the elements
- EXCEPTIONS: Hydrogen ion (H-) and ammonium ion (NH4+)
- To distinguish the number of bonds in a compound, we use Roman
numerals (for those that don’t have a set amount) e.g. Copper (II) =
Cu2+
- The second part of the compound comes from the anion
- If the anion is monatomic (one element only), the first part of
the name comes from the element, and we add -ide
Examples of ‘ate’ and ‘ite”
1) Na2SO4= “-ate”
2) Na2SO3= “-ite”

Writing Chemical Formulae

1) Write down the symbols of the elements
2) Determine and write down the valency
3) A) Two valency numbers cancel out if they’re the same
B) If not the same, find a common multiple and divide by the
valency number e.g. CuCl2: Cu = 2+, Cl = 1-
4) The value 1 in valency is not written down
5) If the subscript of the polyatomic ion is equal to or greater than 2,
place a bracket around the ion
6) Total negative must = total positive
Metals, metalloids and non-metals
Metals
- All metals have certain properties in common
- Metals are solids at room temp (exception is mercury which is
liquid)
- Usually shiny
- Malleable
- Ductile
- Good conductors of heat and electricity
 - Some metals are strong
- Typically, grey in colour (exceptions: gold, copper)
Non-metals
- Solid or gases at room temperature (exceptions: bromine, which is
liquid)
- Molecular non-metals: low melting points and boiling points
- Low densities
- Poor conductors of electricity (exceptions: graphite)
- Tend to be insulators
- Poor thermal conductors (exceptions: diamonds, graphite)
- Brittle and has a dull surface when solid
- Vary in colour
Metalloids
- Have mainly non-metallic characteristics
Electrical conductors, semiconductors and
insulators
- Materials that let electricity pass through them easily = conductors,
e.g. metals
- Materials that don’t allow electricity to pass through them =
insulators. e.g. non-metals
- Semiconductors= metalloids
- Thermal conductors and insulators:
- A hot object contains heat energy, when it comes in contact
with a colder object, energy (in the form of heat) is
transferred to the colder object
- Metals: good conductors of heat
- Non-metals: good insulators

Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials

- Earth behaves as a giant magnet
- Earth’s core consists of molten iron and nickel
- Three elements with strong magnetic properties (ferromagnetic)
 - Iron
- Nickel
- Cobalt
- Ferromagnetic = good magnetic properties
- Alloys = mixtures of different metals or metals combined with non-
metals
- When an alloy contains iron, nickel, or cobalt it often has magnetic
properties
- Alnico is an alloy that contains iron, nickel and cobalt it is
therefore magnetic
- The ferromagnetic elements can also be combined with ceramics
and polymers to make permanent magnets

States of Matter and the Kinetic

Molecular Theory
- All material is in one of 3 states
- Solid = matter maintains a fixed volume and shape
- Liquid = matter maintains a fixed volume but takes on the
shape of its container
- Gas = matter extends to occupy whatever volume is available
- The state in which a substance exists depends on:
- The kinetic energy of its particles
- The intermolecular forces between the particles
- Kinetic energy = determines how much they move around
- Intermolecular forces = hold the particles together in liquid and
solid forces. If the kinetic energy of the particles is increased, they
can overcome the intermolecular forces and change plans
Three States of Matter
- The particles in a solid have less kinetic energy than the particles in
a gas
- Particles in a gas can move freely, particles in a solid, where
the particles are packed in an orderly way
- The intermolecular forces hold the particles together (in the solid
and liquid phases)
Temperature
- The speed of the particles determines the kinetic energy of the
particles
- The particles move at different speeds
- The temperature of a substance is a measure of its particle’s
AVERAGE kinetic energy
Phases Changes
- Substances can change phase when the temperature is increased or
decreased
- When heated, a solid will melt to form a liquid
- The temperature at which the transition occurs is called the
melting point
- Further heating will change the liquid to a gas
- This takes place at the boiling point
- Generally:
- Non-metals have a lower boiling point and melting point than
metals
- Phase change is a physical change
Kinetic Molecular Theory
- The kinetic model of matter describes the movement of particles in
3 states:
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
- In a solid the particles are closely packed together, and there are
strong attractive forces between them
- When the temperature rises, the particles absorb energy, and
vibrate more vigorously
- The average kinetic energy increases:
- Particles occupy more space
The atom
- The most basic building block
- Many different types of atoms
 - Called elements
Dalton’s atomic theory
- Elements are made of atoms
- Atoms of a given element are identical
- Atoms of a given element are different from those other elements
Atomic mass and diameter
- Atoms are extremely small, so scientists must use different units of
measurements
- Atomic mass units/U (mass)
- Angstrom/Ao (radius)
- 1 atomic mass unit = 1,66 x 10-27kg
- E.g. Hydrogen (1,0078u and 1,1Ao)
- Hydrogen atoms mass = 1,78 x 10-27
- 1 angstrom = 1 x 10-10m
- Hydrogen atoms radius = 1,1 x 10-10m
- Atoms consist of 3 main particles
- Protons (p+)
- Neutrons (no)
- Electrons (e-)
- Protons + neutrons = nucleons
- Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus
Relative atomic mass
- We must use a special scientific instrument called a mass
spectrometer
- Because of how small the mass is
- Carbon-12 is the standard
- 1 atoms of carbon-12 have a mass of 12 atomic mass unit
- Hydrogen atom has a mass of 1/12 or carbon-12; therefore, it has a
mass of 1 atomic mass unit
- A magnesium atom’s mass is twice that of carbon-12, therefore its
mass is 24
- We call this the relative atomic mass of an element
The structure of an atom
Particle Relative Mass Relative charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron Very small -1

Atomic Number – Z = Atomic Number – protons

Mass number – A = Mass number – protons + neutrons
Neutrons – N = N?
N=A–Z
A=N+Z
ISOTOPES = Same atomic number but different atomic mass
(different number of neutrons)

Why are the atomic numbers decimals?

It’s a total of all available isotopes

Formula of RAM: E.g. Chlorine:

Chlorine1 – 35 (75,5%)
Chlorine2 – 37 (24,5%)
Relative atomic mass for chlorine = (Cl1 x %) + (Cl2 x %)/100
= 35,49 = 35,5

Electron Structure
- Electrons do not move randomly around the nucleus but occupy
specific areas called orbitals
- Electron configuration = the way in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus
Energy Levels
- Electrons can move up or down through the energy levels by:
 - Absorbing energy
- Losing energy
- Energy levels can be compared to a ladder
- Lowest energy level:
- Most stable
- Ground state
- When an electron absorbs a certain amount of energy it can ‘move
up the ladder’
- The electron is now in an excited state
- The excited state is unstable
- The electron quickly returns to its ground state
- The energy absorbed is released in the form of light

Atomic orbitals
- Atomic orbitals – defines where the electron might be found
- 4 types of orbitals
- S, first, maximum of 1
- P, second, maximum of 3
- D (not to be concerned about)
- F (not to be concerned about)
Aufbau diagram/sp diagram

Orbital

P always must be 3, and second

Must fill block and in opp

directions

REFER TO BOOK
THIS IS NOT ACCURATE
Electrons

1) Spectroscopic electron configuration notation

REFER TO BOOK
THIS IS NOT ACCURATE

The Periodic Table

Groups
- Vertical columns of elements with similar properties
- Moves across the table from left to right/from 1 to 18
- Elements in GroupsGroups
3-12 aretocalled
knowtransition elements
- Group 1 = alkali metals
- Group 2 = alkaline-earth metals
- Group 17 = halogens (ions are called halides)
- Group 18 = noble gases/ inert gases
-
Periods
- Horizontal rows of elements
Electron Configuration
- Electron configuration is linked to their position on the periodic
table
- Each consecutive element has one more electron than the
previous
- Valency electrons – electrons in the outer energy level
- Elements in the same group have the same amount of
valence electrons
- Each member of the group has:
- A full set of inner electrons that:
- Was filled in the previous period
- Are indicated by the symbol of the preceding noble gas
- Same valence electrons
Patterns in the Periodic Table
1. Density
2. Melting and Boiling Points
3. Atomic Radius
4. Ionisation Energy
5. Electronegativity
Density
- D = mass/volume OR D/V
- General trend: density increases from the left to the middle and
decreases from the middle to the right (PERIOD)
- General Trend: Density increases from top to bottom (GROUP)
Melting and Boiling Points
- If the attractive forces between the particles are high/low the
melting/boiling point is high
- If the attractive forces between the particles are low, the
melting/boiling point is low
Atomic Radius
- Atomic radius = half the distances between two nuclei in adjacent
metal atoms or half the distances between the nuclei of two atoms
in a diatomic molecule
- General trend:
- The atomic radius increases as we go down the group
- The atomic radius decreases as we go across the period
Ionisation Energy
- The ionisation energy = the amount of energy required to move an
electron from a neutral atom
- If the ionisation energy is high, the more difficult it is to remove an
electron
- Stronger attractive forces = higher ionisation energy
Most reactive
Weaker attractive forces, because of how far the electrons are from the
nucleus. Therefore, Li has stronger forces (less reactive, electrons are
closer to the nucleus) than K (more reactive, more electrons and are
further from the nucleus) REFER TO THE BOOK FOR PRACTICAL
WORK FOR THIS SECTION
Electron Affinity
- Electron affinity = the energy change that occurs when an electron
is accepted by an atom in gaseous state to form an anion
- Electron affinity increases from left to right on a period
- Electron affinities of metals are generally lower than no-metals
- Halogen = highest electron affinity
- - CHECK BOOK FOR
e.g Cl2 + e = Cl + electron affinity MORE INFORMATION
- -
Formula: x(g) + e → Cl + electron affinity

Electronegativity
- Electronegativity = the ability of an atom in a compound to attract
the bonding electron pair(s)
 - Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and
decreases with the increasing atomic numbers in a group
- Most electronegative elements are found in:
- The upper right-hand corner of the periodic table
- Least electronegative elements are found in:
- Metals on the left-hand side

Chemical Bonding (pg89)

Three different possible combinations:
1) Metal + metal → metallic bonding
2) Non-metal + non-metal → covalent bonding (sharing of bonding
electrons)
3) Metal + non-metal → ionic bonding (transfer of
electrons)
Lewis Dot Diagram
- Only valence electrons
Fluorine has 9 electrons
∴ Fluorine has a -1 valency

Covalent Bonding
- A covalent bond: the most common chemical
that forms when two atoms share their
electrons

Ionic Bonding
- In an ionic bond one or more electrons
move from one atom to another
- Metal + non-metal = ionic bond
- TRANSFER of electrons
- Metals form cations (+ve ions)
- Non-metal forms anions (-ve ions)
Relative molecular and formula masses
When elements combine to form compounds, it’s done in ratios that are
specific to each compound
Law of Constant Composition: All samples of a given chemical compound
have the same elemental composition

Matter and Materials

Molecular Substances
- Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons
- The resultant group of atoms can form a molecule or a giant
covalent network structure
- Molecular substances generally composed of non-metallic elements
- Molecules may contain atoms of the same element OR atoms of
two or more elements
Covalent Molecular Structures made of one element
- The atoms of some elements can combine to form molecules of
elements (e.g. H2, S8, P4)
- When two atoms react, a diatomic molecule form
Elements that usually exist as a diatomic molecule
Hydrogen gas – H
Nitrogen gas – N
Oxygen gas – O
Fluorine – F
Chlorine – Cl Group 17 elements
Bromine – Br
Iodine – I
- If three oxygen atoms combine, ozone (O3) forms
- In the phosphorus molecule (P4), the phosphorus atoms are
arranged in a tetrahedron
 - The sulphur atoms in the sulphur molecule (S8), form a crown-
shaped ring
- Buckyballs (C60), consisting of 60 carbon atoms bonded in the shape
of a ball
Covalent molecular structures made of more than one element
- When atoms of different elements bond, they form molecules of
compounds
- Two atoms of two different elements combine to form a diatomic
molecule (e.g. hydrogen chloride – HCl, carbon monoxide – CO)
- Most molecules contain more than two atoms (e.g. sugar –
C12H22O11, octane – C8H18)
Covalent network structures
- Certain non-metals, e.g. carbon and silicone, do not form simple
molecules
- They exist as giant 3D structures held together by single covalent
bonds
- In these structures, the atoms are joined to each other in a lattice (or
extensive network)
- These structures are strong because the atoms are interlinked by
strong covalent bonds
- Molecules can also form network structures
- Silica (silicone dioxide or SiO2) is commonly known as sand or
quartz
- Some compounds of boron can also form network structures
Carbon
- Carbon atoms can be arranged differently to form diamond and
graphite
- Diamond and graphite have very different properties and are called
allotropes of carbon
- Allotropes are different molecular or crystalline forms of the
same element that differ in physical and
chemical properties
Diamonds
 - In a diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon
atoms by strong covalent bonds
- This is a very strong structure, which is why diamond is so hard
- Since a lot of energy is required to separate each carbon atom from
the four other atoms, diamonds have a very high melting point
- As carbon bonds are very rigid, a diamond crystal lattice is more
brittle than a metallic lattice
- All valence electrons of the carbon atoms are used to form covalent
bonds in diamond
- Therefore, there are no free electrons and diamonds cannot
conduct electricity
- Diamonds are the best thermal conductor
- The lattice structure with strong covalent forces between
atoms allows the atoms to effectively transmit thermal
energy
- Diamonds an excellent abrasive
- No other natural substance can scratch a diamond, except
another diamond
- Diamonds have a high refractive index
Graphite
- The carbon atoms are covalently bonded to three
other carbon atoms to form rings, consisting of six
atoms each
- The rings pack in layers of carbon rings held together
by weak intramolecular forces
- The electrons that do not take part in covalent
bonding form a sea of delocalised electrons that can
conduct electricity
- In a diamond, all four bonding electrons are localised between the
atoms and diamonds cannot conduct electricity
- The covalent bonds in graphite account for its hardness, however,
the layers can slide over one another, making the graphite slippery
to the touch and is effective as a lubricant
- Graphite is often a component in lubricants
 - High-purity graphite does not burn
Properties of Covalent Compounds
- Simple molecules generally have low melting and boiling points
- Weak intramolecular forces hold these molecules together.
The strength of these forces determines the melting and
boiling points of the individual substances
- Covalent network structures have very high melting and boiling
points
- The covalent bonds between the atoms are strong
- Their crystal lattices are strong, but brittle because the
covalent bonds are rigid and directed
- Covalent substances are insulators
- There are no free electrons available to conduct electrical
charge or heat
- Exceptions: Graphite, in which the ring structure allows for
free delocalised electrons and diamond, which is a thermal
conductor

Ionic Substances
- Inorganic ionic substances are solids that result from a reaction
between a metal and non-metal
- These compounds are called salts
- Table salts consist of an ionic crystal lattice that contains Na+
and Cl- (NaCl)
- Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) consists of potassium ions
combined with permanganate ions. In the permanganate ion
(MnO4-), a manganese ion is bonded with four oxygen atoms
Properties of ionic compounds
- Ionic compounds are solids with high melting points and boiling
points
- Strong electrostatic forces hold together the ions in the ionic
crystal lattice
- A large amount of energy is needed to break these forces to
release the ions
 - Ionic substances are called salts and are hard and brittle
- Solid ionic compounds cannot produce an electric current
- They have no free electrons or other charged particles that
can act as charge carriers
- When an ionic compound melts, the ions are free to move
around and act as charge carriers
- Many ionic compounds dissolve in water to form electrolytes

Metallic Substances
- Metallic substances consist of metal atoms packed into a lattice
structure of regularly spaced positive atomic kernels
- The outer electrons form a delocalised pool of electrons that
surround the kernels
- The atoms are bonded by metallic bonding, and the resulting
collection is called a metal

Representing Compounds
Three Dimensional Models

There are two methods for representing compounds three-dimensionally:

- Ball-and-stick model (LEFT-HAND SIDE)
- Space-filling model (RIGHT-HAND SIDE)
- This model is more accurate
Formula
- Molecular formula is to represent covalent molecular structures
- E.g. oxygen is represented by O2 and water by H2O
- Empirical formula is to represent covalent network structures and
metallic lattices
- E.g. Graphite and Diamond consist of (BILLIONS) carbon
atoms, but we show both these structures with C

Physical and Chemical Change

Separation of particles in physical and
chemical change
Physical Change
- Doesn’t alter the chemical nature of the substances
- No new chemical substances are formed
- Reversible
- Intramolecular forces are weaker
- Amount of energy transferred is small
- The total mass and number of atoms are conserved (stay as they
are)
Examples
- Liquid water changes to vapour
- Solid water (ice) changes to liquid
Chemical Change
- Chemical change is a change in which the chemical nature of the
substances involved changes and new chemical substances are
formed
- Substances created have different chemical properties
1. Colour change
2. Release of gas = Chemical Change
3. Change of heat
4. Formation of precipitate
Formation of solids
Examples
 - Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen
(DECOMPOSITION)
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
- Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas react to form water (SYNTHESIS)
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Physical Change Chemical Change
No chemical reaction A chemical reaction takes place
Particles rearrange Particles break apart/join
No new substances form New substances form
The total number of atoms and The total number of atoms are
molecules are conserved conserved
Energy changes are small Energy changes are large
Reversible and not permanent Not reversible and permanent

Conservation of Matter
Law of Conservation of Mass
In the chemical reaction, the sum of the mass of the reactants equals the
sum of the mass of the products
- When elements/ compounds combine to form new products
combine to form new products, the number of atoms of each
element is ALWAYS THE SAME
E.g. 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 Atoms > Molecules
3(1 x 2) + (14 x 2) = 2[14 + (1x3)]
6 + 28 = 34
34 = 34
LHS = RHS

Constant Composition
Law of Constant Composition
All samples of a given chemical compound have the same elemental
composition [RATIO IS ALWAYS FIXED]
When elements combine to form
compounds, they do so in fixed ratios,
proportions that are specific to each
Law of Constant Proportion
A chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass
Some elements can
combine in more than
one ratio
Examples
- According to the law of CONSTANT COMPOSITION, hydrogen will
always combine with oxygen in the ratio 2:1 to give H2O
- According to the law of CONSTANT PROPORTION, atoms of the
elements in water must always have the same proportion by mass.
RAM of water = 18 (WILL ALWAYS = 18)
- According to the law of CONSERVATION OF MASS, there must be
equal numbers of atoms on the left side and right side of the
equation
LHS = RHS

Representing Chemical Change

- In a chemical reaction, the reactants are the substances you use at
the start of an equation or reaction
- The reactants then react and turn into products
- NO MASS is lost when elements or compounds undergo chemical
change [Law of Conservation of Mass]
- Balanced equations form the basis of the quantitive study of
chemistry
Qualitative Study: Based on the qualities present, e.g. type of elements in
a substance
Quantitative Study: Based on the number and ratio of quantities present,
e.g. number of elements in a substance

Writing balanced chemical equations

We ALWAYS balance the chemical equations before we do calculations
We use balanced chemical equations to represent chemical change
Reactant + Reactant → Product
Must be equal
Rules for writing chemical equations:
1) Write down the reactants on LHS and products on RHS (word
equations)
2) Write down the correct formula/symbol under each
product/reactant (POLYATOMIC IONS!!!)
3) Count the number of atoms of each element
4) If the number of atoms of each element on each side of the
equation is equal, the equation is balanced, if not, it’s unbalanced
5) To balance equations, choose the smallest coefficients which will
make the number of atoms of each element equal on both sides
6) Coefficients will affect the ENTIRE FORMULA
7) Indicate the state of the substance in a chemical reaction
- Gas = (g), liquid = (l), solid = (s), aqueous solution (watery)
= (aq)

EXAMPLES ARE IN NOTEBOOK!!!

Chemical Change
Reactions in Aqueous Solution
Ions in aqueous solution
- Water molecules:
- A good solvent
- We use it in aqueous reactions
- Polar molecule
 - Dipole (part of it is positive and part of it is negative)
- The microscopic structure of the water makes it possible for the
substances to dissolve

Polarity of water
- The atoms in a water molecule are held together strongly by covalent
bonds to form an angular molecule

- Oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen ∴ has a

- The electrons are not evenly spread

stronger pull on the shared electron pair

- Oxygen atoms have a partially negative charge (electrons are negative)

- ∴ one side of a water molecule is partially -, and the other

- Hydrogen atoms have a partially positive charge

partially +
- The difference in charge on molecules is called polarity
- Water molecules are dipoles (has two poles)

- ∴ they cancel each other out and the net charge is 0

- Positive and negative charges are equal

- The polarity of water molecules means that the positively charged

hydrogen is attracted to the negatively charged oxygen
- This is called electrostatic attraction

Dissolution of ionic crystals

- Ionic compounds are made of positive and negative ions that are
tightly packed into a crystal lattice
- When an ionic substance (e.g. sodium chloride) is stirred into a beaker
of water, the polar water molecules attract the positive sodium ions
and the negative chloride ions and break the crystal lattice
- New forces (ion-dipole forces) act between the water dipoles and ions
- These forces replace the electrostatic forces
- This process of a solid ionic crystal breaking down is called dissolving
- Water molecules now surround the ions
- This process is called hydration
Electrolytes and extent of ionisation
- Some solid substance cannot conduct an electric current in their solid
state
- But when they are molten or dissolved in water, they become
conductors
- Ionic substances fall into this category
E.g. Sodium chloride in a solid state doesn’t conduct electricity, but if you
heat it to melt it and connect it to battery in a closed circuit, a current
begins to flow. A solution of NaCl in water also conducts a current.
- Ionic compounds contain positive and negative ions packed neatly into
crystal lattices
- In a solid state, the ions cannot move
- When ionic substances are melted, the ions can move
- Ions are the charge carriers, and the ionic liquid or solution
becomes a conductor
- Liquid that can conduct an electric current called electrolytes
- Covalently bonded substances such as ethanol distilled water and

- ∴ they’re non-conductors
paraffin have no free electrons or ions to act as charge carriers

Testing the conductivity of a liquid

- We can test the conductivity of substances by connecting them in a
series to a battery and a light bulb
- If the bulb LIGHTS UP, the substance is a conductor
- To test the conductivity of a liquid, dip graphite rods into the liquid
and connect the rods in series to a battery and a light bulb
- If the liquid is a conductor, the light bulb lights up
- Graphite rods are called electrodes
- The rod attached to the positive side of the battery becomes
positively charged which attracts the negatively charged ions
(ANIONS) and the anions move to the anode
- The rod attached to the negative side of the battery becomes
negatively charged which attracts the positively charged ions
(CATIONS) and the canions move the cathode
- The conductivity of a liquid is determined by:
- The type of substance
- The concentration of ions in the solution

Precipitation reaction
- When aqueous solutions of salts are mixed, a precipitate is sometimes
formed
- A precipitate is obtained when a combination of ions forms an
insoluble salt

Soluble compounds

Solubility Rules
1. All nitrates and acetates are soluble
2. All salts of the alkali metals and ammonia are soluble
3. All chloride, bromide and iodide salts are soluble, except those of
silver, lead and mercury (1)
4. All sulphates are soluble except for those of barium, lead and
strontium which all form white precipitates
5. Most carbonates are almost insoluble except for those of the alkali
metals and ammonia
 6. Most hydroxides are insoluble except for those of the alkali metals,
ammonia and barium
Test for sulphates
- Use barium nitrate to test for sulphates
Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
Add HNO3 = NO
REACTION
Test for carbonates
Na(CO3)2 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq) → BaCO3 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
↘ADD HNO = REACTS
3
Add HNO3 = NO
REACTION

Other types of Chemical Reactions in

(aq)
1) Ion- exchange reactions
- The positive ions exchange their respective negative ions due to a
specific driving force
+
AgCl- - Formation of insoluble salt in precipitation reactions
+ AgCl + HNO3 ≠ product (no chem reaction)
HNO3- Salt = + combines with – ion each
- Formation of gas (sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid)
Carbonate + acid = salt, CO2, water
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
- Transfer of protons in acid + base reactions
e.g. neutralisation between sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
chloride
Na+OH- + H+Cl- → NaCl + H2O

2) Acids and Bases

- A proton (H+) is transferred from the acid to the base
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
E.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The ionic equation is:
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- → Na+ + Cl- + H2O
Both Na and Cl are spectator ions, and the net ionic equation is:
H+ + OH- → H2O
- Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
- 2HCl + Zn → ZnCl + H
- Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water
- H2SO4 + CuO → CuSO4 + H2O
- Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
- H2SO4 + MgCO3 → MgSO4 + CO2 + H2O
- HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + CO2 + H2O
3) Redox reactions (reduction oxidations)
- These are electron transfer (e-) reactions
1) Hydrogen displacement
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2) Metal displacement
2+ 2+
Zn(s) + Cu(aq) → Zn(aq) + Cu(aq)
3) Halogen displacement
- Chlorine is more reactive than bromine, and bromine is more
reactive than iodine
Examples:
Cl2 (g) + 2Br(aq)- → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
Cl2 (g) + 2I(aq)- → 2Cl-(aq) + I2 (s)
Br2 (l) + 2I(aq) →2Br-(aq) + I2 (aq)
Indicators
Indicator Colour (acid) Colour (base) pH range (change)
Methyl orange Orange Yellow 3,1 – 4,4
Bromothymol Yellow Blue 6,0 – 7,6
Blue
 Litmus Red Blue 4,5 – 8,3
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 8,3 – 10,0
Reactions of acids and bases
1) Acid – base neutralisation
- Strong acid + weak base → slightly acidic
- Weak acid + strong base → slight basic
- Weak acid + weak base → neutral
- Strong acid + strong base → neutral

Quantitive Aspects of Chemical

Change (pg240)
Atomic Mass and the Mole Concept
Amount of substance (mole)
- Chemists measure the number of atoms of molecules in moles
- SI system: The mole is the unit for amount of substance
1 mole = 6,024 x 1023 particles
- Avogadro’s number/constant

(1) (2) (3)

Atomic, molecular and formula masses
- Atoms and molecules are too small for a chemist to weigh a single

- ∴ we need another counting unit

atom/molecule

- To understand how we link mass → no. of items, think how banks

count large number of small coins
- The tellers weight the coins because they know that a fixed
number of a particular coin will always have the same mass
- The relative atomic mass of an element is a value that compares the
mass of one element with that of one atom of carbon-12
- Elements in the periodic table were measured from the
carbon-12
 occurring mixtures of isotopes (RAM of elements ∴ seldom
- The RAM of an element is the average mass of the naturally

whole numbers)

- Molecules form when atoms of different elements bond covalently

- By adding the RAMS of all the atoms in the molecule, we can find
the relative molecular mass

- For compounds that contain ions, we use the relative formula mass
- RMM or RFM is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in the
molecule/formula
Molar Mass
- We can determine the molar mass of a molecule/compound from
the molecular mass
- Molar mass (mass of one mole) is equal to the molecular mass of
one compound
Examples:
Carbon: One mole of C-12 = 12g C = 6,024 x 1023 atoms
Aluminium: One mole of Al = 27g Al = 6,024 x 1023 al atoms

Quantitative Chemistry
1) Molar mass: Use relative atomic mass of elements in the periodic
table
e.g. H2O: MH2O = (1x2) + 15
= [Link]-1
m N
2) Number of moles: n = M n = Na

n = moles (mol) n = moles (mol)

m = mass N = no. of particles (atoms, ions, molecules
M = molar mass ([Link]-1) NA = Avogadro’s number (6,02 x1023)
 3) Empirical Formula
Steps:
1. Consider 100g of a compound. Take each percentage as the mass of
the element in 100g of a compound.
2. Find the atomic mass of each element
3. Divide the % (as grams) by the atomic mass, this gives us moles (n)
4. Now divide each mole by the SMALLEST mole value to get the
whole number
5. Write down the empirical formula
Examples: Applying the mole concept
1) Oxygen = 16
Molecule of oxygen = O2 = 32 ((16 x 2)
Ozone = O3 = 48 (16 x 3)
N
2) MgCl2 n= Na

Number of ions? N = n x NA
m = 9,53g = 0,1 x 6,02 x 1023
= 6,02 x 1022
m MMgCl2 = 24,3 + (35,5 x 2)
n= M
= 95,[Link]-1
9 ,53
= 95 , 3 N = 6,02 x 1022 x 3
= 0,1 = 1,81 x 1023 ions
Examples: Calculating moles, mass and molar mass
1) n =? m
n= M
m = 60g
60
= 40
M = 23 + 16 + 1
= 1,5 mol
 = [Link]-1
2) m =? m = nM
n = 0,5 = 0,5 x 80
= 40g
Example: Determine the empirical formula
K: 56,5% C: 8,7% O: 34,8%
Elements g/100g m Simplest ratio
n= M
K 56,5g 56 ,5 1, 45
39 ,1
= 1,45 0 ,75
=2

C 8,7g 8 ,7 0 ,73
12
= 0,73 0 ,73
=1

O 34,8g 34 , 8 2 ,18
16
= 2,18 0 ,73
=3

= K2CO3
Example: Det. the molecular formula
M = 88, [Link]-1
C: 53,55% H:9,09% O:36,36%
C 53,55g 53 ,55 4 , 46
12
= 4,46 2 , 27
=2

H 9,09g 9 , 09 9 , 09
1
= 9,09 2 ,27
=4

O 36,36g 36 ,36 2 ,27

16
= 2,27 2 ,27
=1

88
C2H4O = empir. Ratio = 44

MM = (12 x 2) + (4 x 1) + (16) =2
= [Link]-1
∴ C4H8O2
Hydrates
- Some salts have a specific number of water molecules
- This is the water of crystallisation. These salts are called hydrated
salts
- Anhydrous means no water
Examples of Hydrates
1) Copper (ⅠⅠ) sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O)
2) Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O)
3) Epsom salt (MgSO4. 7H2O)
4) Washing soda (Na2CO3. 10H2O)
5) Oxalic acid ((CO2H)2.2H2O)
Example: Number of moles of water of crystallisation
H2O = 44,72% AlCl3 = 55,28%
Compound g/100g Moles Ratio
AlCl3 55,28g 55 ,28 = 0,41 0 , 41
133 ,5 0 , 41
=1

H2O 44,72g 044 , 72 2 ,5

18
= 2,5 0 , 41
=6

AlCl3: H2O
1:6
∴ AlCl3. 6H2O

Percentage Composition pg249

e.g) CO2
C 12
CO 2
= percentage = 44 x 100 MM = 12 + (16 x 2)

= 27,27% (C) = [Link]-1

O 32
CO 2
= percentage = 44
x 100

= 72,73% (O)
e.g) NaCl Cl 35 ,5
= x 100 MM = 23 + 35,5
NaCl 58 ,5
Na 23
NaCl
= 58 ,5
x 100 = 58,[Link]-1
= 60,68%
= 39,32%

Molar Volume pg 255

Vm = molar volume
↘ dm3 (unit of measurement)
↘ STP → Standard (numbers are fixed) Temperature and Pressure (0
and 1 atm – 101kfa)

e.g) Calculations using the concentration of solutions

Sodium Chloride m
C = MXV
Mass: 20g
Volume: 200cm3 20
= 58 ,5 X 0 , 2
= 200  1000
= 0,2dm3 = 1,[Link]-3
e.g) Determine the volume
n = 2mol of SO2 at STP
V?
V = 2 x 22,4
= 44,8dm3

e.g) Determine the volume occupied

V? m
n= M
M = 11,5g NO2 (g) at STP
V = n x Vm 11,5
= 46
V = 0,25 x 22,4
= 5,6dm3 = 0,25
A standard solution: An accurately made-up solution of known
concentration
Methods to propose a standard solution:
1) Accurately weigh the correct amount of a solute on a balance
2) Transfer the solute to a volumetric flask through a funnel
 3) Add a small amount of water to the flask and carefully swirl it to
dissolve the solid
4) Use a water bottle to add more water to bring the level of the
solution exactly to the volume mark

Basic Stoichiometric calculations

(pg257)
- Stochiometric calculations: Calculate the ions of the mass and
volume of the substances that react together
Mass Calculations
- To find the reactant and products amounts in reactions, we need to
write a mass equation
How to:
1) Write down a balanced symbol equation
2) Calculate the relevant formula masses of every reactant and
product
3) Write down the mass equations (substitute)
4) Calculate the unknown values by using ratios

Examples:
1) 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
2(32 + (16 x 2)) → 2(32 + (16 x 3))
128g + 32 → 160
∴ 128 : 160
500 x 1,25 = 625g of SO3
1 : 1,25
2) 1) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
2) 1Kg (Fe2O3)
M? Fe
56 x 2 + 16 x 3 + 3(12 + 16) → 2 x 56 + 3(12 + 16 x 2)
 160 + 84 → 112 + 132
160 : 112 ∴ 0,7Kg of Fe
1 : 0,7 ∴ 700g of Fe