CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 4
SPECIALCONCRETEAND DURABILITY
• Special Concrete
• Concreting Technics
• Durability

SPECIAL
 CONCRET
E
DEFINITION
• Special concretes are the concretes
prepared for specific purposes like light
weight , high density, fire protection,
radiation, shielding etc.
 1. LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
• Conventional concrete is bulky and heavy and hence
impose higher dead load on multi storied buildings. • Light
weight concrete (LWC) used to decrease dead load • They
are produced by entraining air in concrete by : 1. Excluding
 fine aggregates (No-fines Concrete ) : • Concrete with
cement and coarse aggregates only. • Since no fine
aggregate, voids are created and thus less weight.
2. Replacing coarse aggregates
• Aggregates are replaced by porous or lightweight
aggregates like ;
• Foamed slag, vermiculite, pumice, Expanded clay etc.
3. By introducing air bubbles (aerated concrete); • By
making concrete porous or cellular by aerating or using
forms.
• These are two types: i) Foam concrete, ii) Gas concrete
Foam Concrete
• Obtained by mixing cement paste (mortar) with
stabilized foams.
• After hardening foam cells form cellular structure. •
Foam obtained by mixing resin soap and animal
glue.
Gas Concrete
• Formed by expanding the cement paste with gas
forming agents like ;
• Aluminium powder, hydrogen peroxide and
bleaching powder
CHARACTERISTICS OF LWC
• Density : 300 - 1200 kg/ m3
• Workability : Slump 50 to 75 mm.
• Compressive Strength :20-35 MPa - common
40-48 MPa - in precast
70-75 Mpa - with controlled porosity
• Thermal insulation : 10 times than that of normal concrete.
• Fire resistance : Excellent compared to normal concrete. •
Sound insulation : Poor.
• Durability : less durable due to its porosity and slight
alkalinity.
• Repairability : Easy to drill and nail - easy to repair
• Economy : Economic as light in weight.
ADVANTAGES OFLWC
• Decreased dead load on structure hence ;
Economic.
More resistant to earthquake forces.
Decrease in pre-stressing force for design of
pre-stressedmembers.
• Thermal insulation.

APPLICATIONS OFLWC
• In precast floor and roofing units.
• Load bearing walls using cellular concrete blocks.
• As insulation cladding in to walls of structure. •
Used for partitions in framed structure
2. HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE
• When the grade of concrete exceeds M35, the
concrete may be called as high strength concrete
(HSC). • This high strength can be achieved by
using of chemical and mineral admixtures or by
any one of the following methods.
(a) Seeding
(b) Re vibration
(c) High speed slurry mixing
 (d) Use of admixtures
(e) Inhibition of cracks
(f) Sulphur Impregnation
(g) Use of cementitious aggregates
(a) Seeding
•In this method, small percentage of finely ground, fully
hydrated Portland cement is added to fresh concrete mix.
(b) Re vibration
•Mixing water to concrete mix creates continuous capillary
channels and accumulates water at some places causing
reduction in strength.
•Controlled re vibration removes these defects.
c) High speed slurry mixing
•The cement water mixture is first made with advanced
methods.
• Aggregates are then mixed into this paste.
• High strength is achieved by more effective hydration of
particles.
(d) Use of admixtures
• Addition of admixtures (Mineral or chemical)
suitably will increase the strength of concrete.

(e) Inhibition of cracks

• Cracks in concrete are inhibited by replacing 2-3% of
 fine aggregate by polythene or polystyrene of 0.025
mm thick and 3 to 4 mm in diameter. • The polythene
acts as a crack arrester.
• The strength is much improved up to 105 MPa.
(f) Suphur Impregnation:
•Satisfactory high strength concrete has been produced by
impregnating low strength porous concrete by sulphur. •The
process consists of the immersion of hardened concrete
(drying them at 120° C for 24 hours), in molten sulphur
under vacuum for 2 hours.
• By this method the strength is improved up to 58
MPa. (g) Use of cementitious aggregates:
•Some kind of clinkers are used as aggregate in concrete and
is called cementitious aggregate ([Link]). •It gives high
strength to the concrete up to 125 MPa with very low water
cement ratio of 0.32.
ADVANTAGES OF HSC
• Reduced maintenance and repair.
• Sizes of beams and columns can be reduced. •
Bridges can be constructed with longer spans with
minimum supports
• Construction of slabs and floors with thinner sections is
made possible.
APPLICATIONS OF HSC
• High rise buildings.
• Bridges with long spans.
• High load carrying buildings built on weak soil ( low
bearing capacity
3. HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE•
High performance concrete (HPC) is also a high strength
concrete ,but also have following characteristics ; o High
workability
o High modulus of elasticity
o High density
 o Low permeability
o High resistance to chemical attack
o Inhibition of bacterial and mold growth.
o Dimensional stability.
o High resistance to frost.
• High performance concrete is engineered concrete obtained
by careful selection and proportion of its constituents.
• High performance concrete can be achieved by;
o Reducing w/c ratio to less than 0.3
o Use of large quantity of mineral admixtures (Silica
fume, GGBFS etc.)
 o High dosage of super plasticizer for workability. o
For obtaining HPC of strength more than 100 MPa,
aggregates of maximum size 10 to 12 mm has t be
used.
o Cubic shaped aggregate with minimum flaky and
elongated particles to be used.
o Heat treatment and application of pressure during
curing.
ADVANTAGES OF HPC
• Sizes of beams and columns can be reduced. •
Improved durability in aggressive environment. •
Wearing and abrasive resistance
 • Low shrinkage
• High tensile strength
• Less maintenance cost.
• Service life of more than 100 years.
APPLICATIONS OF HPC
• High rise buildings.
• Bridges with long spans.
• Tunnels.
• Nuclear structures.
4. POLYMER CONCRETE
• Concrete in which monomers added into the pores of
 hardened concrete, and then getting it polymerized by
thermal process is called polymer concrete.
• By this polymerization, the strength of the concrete is
much improved.
• Following are the monomers used;
o Methyl-methacrylate
o Styrene
o Acrylonitrile
o T-butyl styrene
o Thermoplastic
monomer.
ADVANTAGES OF
POLYMER CONCRETE • High impact
resistance.
• High compressive strength.
• High resistance to freezing and thawing.
• Low permeability
• High resistance to chemical attack.
APPLICATIONS OF POLYMER
CONCRETE • Nuclear power plant
• Precast slabs and bridge decks
• Marine works
• Prestressed concrete
• Irrigation and sewage works.
• Water proofing of buildings.
5. GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE•
Geo-polymer cement concrete is made from
utilization of waste materials such as fly ash and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS).
• Following materials are required to produce this
concrete; o Fly ash
o GGBS
o Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
o Alkaline activator solution ( Distilled water +
Alkali silicates + Hydroxides)
ADVANTAGES OF GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE •
Gains compressive strength faster than ordinary concrete. •
Compressive strength - 70 MPa.
• Low heat of hydration.
• Less chloride permeability.
• High acid resistance
• Lesser drying shrinkage.
• Less carbon emission into atmosphere.
APPLICATIONS OF GEO-POLYMER
CONCRETE • Construction of pavements
• Retaining walls.
• Water tanks.
• Precast bridge decks.
6. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
• Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) can be defined as a
composite material consisting of mixtures of cement,
aggregate and uniformly dispersed fibres.
• Following are the usual fibres used ;
1. Steel Fiber
2. Polypropylene
Fiber
3. GFRC Glass
Fiber
4. Asbestos Fibers
5. Carbon Fibers
6. Organic Fibers
[Link] fibre (Coir fibre, Cotton fibre, Sisal fibre,
Jute fibre and Wool fibre)
ADVANTAGES OF FRC
• Fibre increases tensile strength of concrete. •
Fibres can arrest crack formation.
• Minimises differential deformation.
• Resistance to creep
• Increases durability of concrete.
• Reduces air voids and water voids.
APPLICATIONS OF FRC
• Tunnel linings.
• Manholes.
• Used for shotcrete or guniting.
• For repair of pavements and structural elements.
• Slope stabilisation.
• Pi ril lr
7. SULPHUR CONCRETE
• Concrete which consists of sulphur, fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate only is sulphur
concrete.
• Do not contain water or cement.
• Prepared by mixing powdered sulphur and
aggregates in a mixer with a heater at a
temperature of 140º C.
• Following are the advantages of sulphur
concrete; 1. Attains strength rapidly (90% strength
 in 6-8 hours) 2. High durability against chemicals.
• Following are the disadvantages,
1. Brittle
2. High creep and increases corrosion rate
• Following are the applications,
1. Precast blocks 2. Industrial plant units
8. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
• Self compacting concrete (SCC) can be defined as fresh
concrete that flows under its own weight and does not
require external vibration to undergo compaction.
• Filling and passing ability, segregation resistance are the
 properties of self compacting concrete.
o Filling Ability: The ability to flow under its own
weight without any vibration provided intentionally. o
Passing Ability: The ability of the concrete to maintain
its homogeneity.
o Segregation resistance: This is the resistance of the
concrete not to undergo segregation when it flows
during the self compaction process
• Following are the constituents of SCC ;
o Cement : OPC 43 or 53m grade
o CoarseAggregate : 10 mm -20 mm preferred. o
Fine aggregate : Natural sand smaller than 0.125mm. o
 Mineral admixtures.
o Chemical admixtures to improve flowability.
APPLICATIONS OF SCC
• Used where inserting vibrator is difficult.
• For structures with complicated reinforcement.
• For structures with congested reinforcement. •
Raft and pile foundations.
• Used for repair and restoration of construction.
ADVANTAGES SCC
• The permeability of the concrete structure is
decreased. • The SCC construction is faster.
• The problems associated with vibration is
eliminated. • The concrete is placed with ease
• The quality of the construction is increased. •
Noise from vibration is decreased.
• More durable than normal concrete.
9. NO FINES CONCRETE
• No-fines concrete is a lightweight concrete that is
obtained by eliminating the fine material sand,
from thenormal concrete mix.
• The advantages of this type of concrete are:
• Lower density.
• Lower cost due to lower cement content.
• Lower thermal conductivity
• Relatively low drying shrinkage.
• No segregation and capillary movement of water. •
Better insulating characteristics than
conventionalconcrete because of the presence of
large voids
• The application of this type of concrete are:
1. Precast units 2. Heat a insulation cladding 3.
Partition walls

CONCRETING
 TECHNICS
1. SHOTCRETE OR GUNITE
• Shotcrete or gunite is the method in which dry or damp
cement and sand mix are conveyed through pipes with
the help of compressed air, and then applied at high
velocity to the required surface through a nozzle, where
the mix is mixed with water jet.
APPLICATIONS OF SHOTCRETE
• For repair the damaged surface of concrete
• For bridge deck rehabilitation
• Repair of fire and earthquake damage and deterioration,
by strengthening walls.
 • Shotcrete is used in underground excavations in rock •
Used for temporary protection of exposed rock surfaces
that will deteriorate when exposed to air. • To construct
concrete swimming pools.
• Shotcrete floors in tanks and pools on well compacted
sub-base
2. COLD WEATHER
CONCRETINGConcreting in cold weather
conditions has to be given special care due to following
effects of weather.
1. Delayed Setting : When temperature is low,
 hydration is low and thus takes longer time to set. 2.
Freezing of concrete at early stage : When
temperature fall below freezing point of water in
pores, water solidifies and concrete expands.
3. Freezing and thawing : When concrete is subjected
to alternate cycles of freezing and thawing it effects
the durability of concrete.
4. Stresses due to temperature differential :
Temperature inside concrete mass will be higher than
the temperature outside - leads to cracks.
METHODSAND PRECAUTIONS
1. Selection of suitable type of cement : Rapid hardening
cements, high alumina cements and cement with higher
 C3S and lesser C2S can be used.
2. Temperature control of ingredients : The ingredients of
concrete can be preheated to provide sufficient heat for
hydration. Usually water is heated to a temperature of
65ºC.
3. Electrical heating of concrete mass : Concrete mass is
heated using A.C current. Electricity can be passed
through reinforcing bars or using special electrodes.
4. Use of Insulating formwork : Hydration produces
sufficient amount of heat. This heat can be conserved
further, if the formwork is insulated by suitable means.
5. Admixtures of Anti-freezing materials:
Accelerators like CaCl2 can be used.
6. Use of air entraining agents: Air entraining
agents modifies pore structure of concrete and
gives space for expansion during freeze and thaw
cycles.
7. Delayed removal of formwork : As the rate of
development of strength is slower in cold weather,
form work can be placed for a longer duration.
8. Placing and Curing: Before placing all ice
shall be removed from the surface and steam
curing should be preferred over water curing.
9. Covering the concrete surfaces : To prevent
loss of heat and to avoid freezing, all surfaces
should be covered with suitable insulating
material, immediately after placing.
3. HOT WEATHER
CONCRETINGConcreting in hot weather
conditions has to be given special care due to
following effects of weather.
1. Rapid rate of hydration: When temperature is
high, hydration is fast and thus sets rapidly which
reduces strength.
2. Evaporation of mixing water : Mixing water
evaporates resulting in lower workability, lower
strength and cracks.
 3. Evaporation during curing : When curing
water evaporates rapidly, desired effect of curing is
lost. 4. Air entrainment : At higher temperature
its difficult to control air entrainment in concrete.
5. Increased tendency to crack due to loss of
water.
METHODSAND PRECAUTIONS
1. Cooling of aggregates : Cooling aggregates can reduce
the temperature of concrete. This can be done by ; o
Sprinkling water on aggregate before using. o Adding
broken pieces of ice as a part of mixing water.
o Blowing of cold air.
2. Mixing water : Water can be used to control the
temperature of concrete mass easily than that of
aggregates.
o Cold water can added during mixing.
o If temperature is too high, calculated quantity of ice
pieces can be added directly into the mixer, instead
of mixing water.
3. Production and delivery : Following factors has to be
considered during production and delivery of concrete; o
The temperature of ingredients should be maintained in
such a way that the final mix temperature is below 40º
C while placing.
o Concrete should be mixed in minimum possible time.
o Reinforcement, formwork etc. should be shrinked
with cooled water prior to concrete placing.
o Concrete should be placed in thin layers with
sufficient time between successive lifts.
o Immediately after finishing, concrete surfaces should
be covered with plastic sheets , gunny bags etc. o
Continuous curing has to be ensured.
4. UNDER WATER
CONCRETING Special care has to be
taken in placing concrete under water. Following
are the precautions/ recommendations to be
taken.
1. Concrete should be plastic with sufficient flow
ability. 2. Slump of 150 to 180 mm required.
3. Cement requirement should not be less than 8
sacks per cubic meter of concrete.
4. Fine aggregate proportion should be 45-50% of
total aggregates.
5. Not less than 10% of fine aggregate should pass
through 300 micron sieve and not less than 2%
pass the 150 micron sieve.
6. Coarse aggregates to be graded up to
 METHODS FOR CONCRETING UNDER
WATER 1. TREMIE METHOD
• Underwater concreting using tremie (pipe of 250 mm dia
with funnel shaped upper end) method is convenient for
pouring large amount of high flowable concrete.
• The concrete is moved to the hopper by either pumping,
belt conveyer or skips.
• Tremie pipe, which upper end connected to a hopper and
lower end continuously submerged in fresh concrete, is
used to place concrete at the exact location from a
hopper at the surface.
• Care should be taken to avoid water in the tremie.
 2. BUCKET PLACING
• Concreting by this method can be carried out up
to greater depths.
• Buckets bottoms drop which can open
outwards. freely to
are provided with

• Bucket is filled with concrete and

top is covered with canvas cloth
or gunny bags.
• Bucket is lowered up to the depth
required using a crane and
concrete is discharged by opening
 the drop bottom.
• It is difficult to maintain leveled top
surface in this method.
3. PLACING IN BAGS
• Concrete is filled in cloth gunny bags partially
(Usually about 2/3rd)
• These filled bags are placed on a surface and is
lowered into the water and placed at the required
depth carefully in a header and stretcher fraction as
in the brick masonry construction.
• No formwork is required for this method. •
Divers are required to place the bags in correct
order under water which makes this method slow
and laborious.
• Voids between the adjacent bags is difficult to
fill. • Used for placing concrete in shallow depth
water.
4. PRE PACKED CONCRETE
• Used when tremie or bottom dump bucket method
is not feasible for concreting.
• First aggregates are only placed in the form work
and are compacted to form a prepacked mass.
• The cement mortar is then grouted into this mass
with required proportions.
• Prepacked concrete is advantageous due to less
carbonation shrinkage.
• This method is applicable when ;
1. Reinforcement is complicated.
2. In pipes and conduits.
3. Well staining.
4. Edge abutments and piers.
5. Mass concreting.
• Grouting can be done by
o Grouting is done at top of mass and allowing to
penetrate.
o The formwork is filled with grout and
aggregate mass is placed into it.
o The grout is injected from bottom of pre packed
mass.
 5. PLACING IN DEWATERED CASSIONS OR
COFFER DAMS
• In this method same procedure is used as on dry
conditions.
• In case concrete is to be placed under flowing water, then
the velocity of flow should not be more than 5 cm/sec, so
that mortar is not lost due to the following water.
6. MASS CONCRETING
• Concrete placed in massive structures like dams,
canal locks, bridge piers etc. are called mass
concrete. • Following are the precautions taken;
1. Should have low slump.
2. Aggregates used are of large sizes (150mm) 3.
Power vibrators of immersion type required for
compaction.
4. Low heat cement has to be used to control heat
of hydration.
5. Continuous curing has to be done to avoid
cracks. 6. Concreting is preferable done in winter
season. • Mass concrete has high early strength but
less later strength.

DURABILITY OF
 CONCRETE
DEFINITION
Durabilty is the ability of concrete to
resist weathering action, chemical attack,
and abrasion while maintaining its desired
engineering properties.
 EFFECTS OF INADEQUATE
DURABILITY
Loss of strength of concrete.

Corrosion of reinforcements.

Loss of serviceability and reduction in service life.

Expensive repairs.

Unpleasant appearance.

Damage to people and property.

 FACTORS AFFECTING

DURABILITY FACTORS

Process
Factors within Concrete Environmental Factors Materials Physical

Chemical

• Binder type • Admixture • Mix • Transporting • workmanship

Binder content • design • Compaction
• Abrasion
Aggregates • • Mixing • Curing
• Erosion
 • Temperature • Corrosion • Alkali Aggregate • SulphateAttack
• Freeze-thaw • Acid attack Reaction • Carbonation
• Moisture
(The explanation of how all these factors effects durability has been explained through out
in this course of concrete technology. So if asked to explain you can do it in your own
words.)

DEFECTS
IN
CONCRETE
1. PERMEABILITY OF
CONCRETE
• Permeability is the rate at which water or other
aggressive substances can penetrate concrete.

• Lower the permeability of concrete, higher is the

resistance to chemical attack on concrete.
CAUSES OF PERMEBILITY
• Porosity and interconnectivity of pores :
Higherporosity, higher the permeability.
• Water cement ratio : As degree water cement
ratioincreases permeability increases due to shrinkage etc.
 • Degreeof compaction : Lower the degree of
compaction, higher the porosity, higher permeability. •
Degree of hydration.
• Quantity of constituent materials.
EFFECTS OF PERMEABILITY
• Chemical attack
• Frost attack
• Corrosion
CONTROLOFPERMEABILITY
• Use of pozzolanic materials
• Air entrainment up to 6%
• High pressure steam curing
• Hydrophobic pore blocking
• Control of w/c ratio
• Use of well graded aggregates and finer cement.
• Proper compaction.
 2. FREEZING AND THAWING
• Water in pores freezes and forms ice which causes
expansion of concrete at cold weather.
• The ice melts when the temperature rises.
• This alternate cycle of freezing and thawing causes
following effects in concrete ;
1. Formation of cracks.
2. Reduction in strength.
3. Surface scaling and disintegration
• The cracks are formed by the expansive pressure
exerted on the concrete by water.
CONTROLOFFREEZINGAND THAWING •
Air entrainment in concrete : Air in voids
provide sufficient space to release. expansive
pressure. • Use of chemicals : Use of chemicals
such as sodium chloride, calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride in
high concentrations, reduce freezing point.
• Use of admixtures with anti freezing materials. •
Use of insulating material to retain heat of
 hydration.
3. SULPHATE ATTACK
• Increase in volume of cement paste due to chemical
action between products of hydrates of cement and
solution containing sulphates is sulphate attack.
• In hardened concrete, calcium alumino hydrate (C
A-H) reactes with sulphates forming calcium sulpho
 aluminate, which increases volume of concrete.
• Appearance of white patches is an indication of
sulphate attack on concrete.
• Effects of sulphate attack are spalling of concrete,
cracks, reduction in strength etc.
SOURCES OF SULPHATES
• Cement, aggregates and admixtures having more
sulphur content.
• Industrial waste water.
• Soil having sulphates.
• Groundwater.
• Sulphate in water used for curing, mixing etc.
CONTROLOF SULPHATEATTACK
• Use of sulphate resisting cement.
• Use of quality concrete with low water cement ratio and
lower permeability.
• Use of air entrainment.
• Use of pozzolonas.
• High pressure steam curing.
• Use of high alumina cement.
4. CARBONATION IN CONCRETE
• Process by which carbon dioxide in air penetrates into
concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form
calcium carbonates.
 EFFECTS OF CARBONATION ON CONCRETE
• Reduce pH and thus decreases alkalinity of
concrete.
• Decrease protective decay of layer around
in alkalinity leads to steel and cause
corrosion
CAUSES OF CARBONATION
• Level of pore water : Increase in pore water
increascarbonation.
• Permeability : Higher permeability, higher carbonation. •
Cover to rebar : Carbonation effects steel with less cover. •
Lack of protective coating to concrete.

CONTROLOFCARBONATION
• Using mix with low water cement ratio
• Maintaining low relative humidity
• Surface coatings and • Mineral paints to concrete
protection ingress of suface.
CO2into concrete. layer to inhibit
5. CORROSION IN CONCRETE
• Corrosion is the deterioration of solid components of
concrete by the attack of reactive agents.
• Steel reinforcements in concrete corrodes as follows.
• The protective layer around the steel dissolves due
to effects like carbonation.
• In presence of O2 and H2O (at cathode) electro
chemical reaction takes place, producing
corrosion products (Fe2+ produced at anode).
• As the process continues corrosion products
increases, and concrete disintegration (spalling)
takes place.
CAUSES OF CORROSION
• Carbonation
• Less cover to reinforcement
• Presence of moisture content
 • Poor quality of materials and workmanship.
• Permeability of concrete.
EFFECTS OF CORROSION
• Spalling of concrete
• Delamination of concrete
• Reduction in cross section of reinforcement •
Reduction in load bearing capacity of structure. •
Permeability of concrete.
• Cracks and sudden and total failure of structure
CONTROLOFCORROSION
• Improving quality of concrete.
• Increasing depth of concrete cover to steel.
• Concrete coating and sealers.
• Galvanizing steel.
• Coating of reinforcements (paint, epoxy etc.)
• Proper storage and stacking reinforcement.

6. CREEPIN CONCRETE
7. SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
(For creep and shrinkage refer to module 2
notes)