CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 4
SPECIAL CONCRETE AND DURABILITY
• Special Concrete
• Concreting Technics
• Durability
 SPECIAL
CONCRETE
 DEFINITION
• Special concretes are the concretes prepared
for specific purposes like light weight , high
density, fire protection, radiation, shielding
etc.
 1. LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
• Conventional concrete is bulky and heavy and hence
impose higher dead load on multi storied buildings.
• Light weight concrete (LWC) used to decrease dead load
• They are produced by entraining air in concrete by :
1. Excluding fine aggregates (No-fines Concrete ) :
• Concrete with cement and coarse aggregates only.
• Since no fine aggregate, voids are created and thus
less weight.
2. Replacing coarse aggregates
• Aggregates are replaced by porous or lightweight
aggregates like ;
• Foamed slag, vermiculite, pumice, Expanded clay etc.
3. By introducing air bubbles (aerated concrete);
• By making concrete porous or cellular by aerating or
using forms.
• These are two types: i) Foam concrete, ii) Gas
concrete
Foam Concrete
• Obtained by mixing cement paste (mortar) with
stabilized foams.
• After hardening foam cells form cellular structure.
• Foam obtained by mixing resin soap and animal
glue.
Gas Concrete
• Formed by expanding the cement paste with gas
forming agents like ;
• Aluminium powder, hydrogen peroxide and
bleaching powder
CHARACTERISTICS OF LWC
• Density : 300 - 1200 kg/ m3
• Workability : Slump 50 to 75 mm.
• Compressive Strength :20-35 MPa - common
40-48 MPa - in precast
70-75 Mpa - with controlled porosity
• Thermal insulation : 10 times than that of normal concrete.
• Fire resistance : Excellent compared to normal concrete.
• Sound insulation : Poor.
• Durability : less durable due to its porosity and slight
alkalinity.
• Repairability : Easy to drill and nail - easy to repair
• Economy : Economic as light in weight.
ADVANTAGES OF LWC
• Decreased dead load on structure hence ;
 Economic.
 More resistant to earthquake forces.
 Decrease in pre-stressing force for design of pre-stressed
members.
• Thermal insulation.

APPLICATIONS OF LWC
• In precast floor and roofing units.
• Load bearing walls using cellular concrete blocks.
• As insulation cladding in to walls of structure.
• Used for partitions in framed structure
 2. HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
• When the grade of concrete exceeds M35, the concrete
may be called as high strength concrete (HSC).
• This high strength can be achieved by using of chemical
and mineral admixtures or by any one of the following
methods.
(a) Seeding
(b) Re vibration
(c) High speed slurry mixing
(d) Use of admixtures
(e) Inhibition of cracks
(f) Sulphur Impregnation
(g) Use of cementitious aggregates
(a) Seeding
•In this method, small percentage of finely ground, fully
hydrated Portland cement is added to fresh concrete mix.
(b) Re vibration
•Mixing water to concrete mix creates continuous capillary
channels and accumulates water at some places causing
reduction in strength.
•Controlled re vibration removes these defects.
c) High speed slurry mixing
•The cement water mixture is first made with advanced
methods.
• Aggregates are then mixed into this paste.
• High strength is achieved by more effective hydration
of particles.
(d) Use of admixtures
• Addition of admixtures (Mineral or chemical)
suitably will increase the strength of concrete.

(e) Inhibition of cracks

• Cracks in concrete are inhibited by replacing 2-3%
of fine aggregate by polythene or polystyrene of
0.025 mm thick and 3 to 4 mm in diameter.
• The polythene acts as a crack arrester.
• The strength is much improved up to 105 MPa.
(f) Suphur Impregnation:
•Satisfactory high strength concrete has been produced by
impregnating low strength porous concrete by sulphur.
•The process consists of the immersion of hardened concrete
(drying them at 120° C for 24 hours), in molten sulphur
under vacuum for 2 hours.
• By this method the strength is improved up to 58 MPa.
(g) Use of cementitious aggregates:
•Some kind of clinkers are used as aggregate in concrete
and is called cementitious aggregate (Eg. ALAG).
•It gives high strength to the concrete up to 125 MPa with
very low water cement ratio of 0.32.
ADVANTAGES OF HSC
• Reduced maintenance and repair.
• Sizes of beams and columns can be reduced.
• Bridges can be constructed with longer spans with
minimum supports
• Construction of slabs and floors with thinner sections is
made possible.

APPLICATIONS OF HSC
• High rise buildings.
• Bridges with long spans.
• High load carrying buildings built on weak soil ( low
bearing capacity
 3. HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
• High performance concrete (HPC) is also a high strength
concrete ,but also have following characteristics ;
o High workability
o High modulus of elasticity
o High density
o Low permeability
o High resistance to chemical attack
o Inhibition of bacterial and mold growth.
o Dimensional stability.
o High resistance to frost.
• High performance concrete is engineered concrete obtained
by careful selection and proportion of its constituents.
• High performance concrete can be achieved by;
o Reducing w/c ratio to less than 0.3
o Use of large quantity of mineral admixtures (Silica
fume, GGBFS etc.)
o High dosage of super plasticizer for workability.
o For obtaining HPC of strength more than 100
MPa, aggregates of maximum size 10 to 12 mm
has t be used.
o Cubic shaped aggregate with minimum flaky and
elongated particles to be used.
o Heat treatment and application of pressure during
curing.
ADVANTAGES OF HPC
• Sizes of beams and columns can be reduced.
• Improved durability in aggressive environment.
• Wearing and abrasive resistance
• Low shrinkage
• High tensile strength
• Less maintenance cost.
• Service life of more than 100 years.
APPLICATIONS OF HPC
• High rise buildings.
• Bridges with long spans.
• Tunnels.
• Nuclear structures.
 4. POLYMER CONCRETE
• Concrete in which monomers added into the pores of
hardened concrete, and then getting it polymerized by
thermal process is called polymer concrete.
• By this polymerization, the strength of the concrete is
much improved.
• Following are the monomers used;
o Methyl-methacrylate
o Styrene
o Acrylonitrile
o T-butyl styrene
o Thermoplastic monomer.
ADVANTAGES OF POLYMER CONCRETE
• High impact resistance.
• High compressive strength.
• High resistance to freezing and thawing.
• Low permeability
• High resistance to chemical attack.
APPLICATIONS OF POLYMER CONCRETE
• Nuclear power plant
• Precast slabs and bridge decks
• Marine works
• Prestressed concrete
• Irrigation and sewage works.
• Water proofing of buildings.
 5. GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE
• Geo-polymer cement concrete is made from utilization of
waste materials such as fly ash and ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBFS).
• Following materials are required to produce this concrete;
o Fly ash
o GGBS
o Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
o Alkaline activator solution ( Distilled water + Alkali
silicates + Hydroxides)
ADVANTAGES OF GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE
• Gains compressive strength faster than ordinary concrete.
• Compressive strength - 70 MPa.
• Low heat of hydration.
• Less chloride permeability.
• High acid resistance
• Lesser drying shrinkage.
• Less carbon emission into atmosphere.
APPLICATIONS OF GEO-POLYMER CONCRETE
• Construction of pavements
• Retaining walls.
• Water tanks.
• Precast bridge decks.
 6. FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
• Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) can be defined as a
composite material consisting of mixtures of cement,
aggregate and uniformly dispersed fibres.
• Following are the usual fibres used ;
1. Steel Fiber
2. Polypropylene Fiber
3. GFRC Glass Fiber
4. Asbestos Fibers
5. Carbon Fibers
6. Organic Fibers
[Link] fibre (Coir fibre, Cotton fibre, Sisal fibre,
Jute fibre and Wool fibre)
ADVANTAGES OF FRC
• Fibre increases tensile strength of concrete.
• Fibres can arrest crack formation.
• Minimises differential deformation.
• Resistance to creep
• Increases durability of concrete.
• Reduces air voids and water voids.
APPLICATIONS OF FRC
• Tunnel linings.
• Manholes.
• Used for shotcrete or guniting.
• For repair of pavements and structural elements.
• Slope stabilisation.
• Pipes, railway sleepers etc.
 7. SULPHUR CONCRETE
• Concrete which consists of sulphur, fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate only is sulphur concrete.
• Do not contain water or cement.
• Prepared by mixing powdered sulphur and aggregates in a
mixer with a heater at a temperature of 140º C.
• Following are the advantages of sulphur concrete;
1. Attains strength rapidly (90% strength in 6-8 hours)
2. High durability against chemicals.
• Following are the disadvantages,
1. Brittle
2. High creep and increases corrosion rate
• Following are the applications,
1. Precast blocks 2. Industrial plant units
 8. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
• Self compacting concrete (SCC) can be defined as fresh
concrete that flows under its own weight and does not
require external vibration to undergo compaction.
• Filling and passing ability, segregation resistance are the
properties of self compacting concrete.
o Filling Ability: The ability to flow under its own
weight without any vibration provided intentionally.
o Passing Ability: The ability of the concrete to
maintain its homogeneity.
o Segregation resistance: This is the resistance of the
concrete not to undergo segregation when it flows
during the self compaction process
• Following are the constituents of SCC ;
o Cement : OPC 43 or 53m grade
o Coarse Aggregate : 10 mm -20 mm preferred.
o Fine aggregate : Natural sand smaller than 0.125mm.
o Mineral admixtures.
o Chemical admixtures to improve flowability.
APPLICATIONS OF SCC
• Used where inserting vibrator is difficult.
• For structures with complicated reinforcement.
• For structures with congested reinforcement.
• Raft and pile foundations.
• Used for repair and restoration of construction.
ADVANTAGES SCC
• The permeability of the concrete structure is decreased.
• The SCC construction is faster.
• The problems associated with vibration is eliminated.
• The concrete is placed with ease
• The quality of the construction is increased.
• Noise from vibration is decreased.
• More durable than normal concrete.
 9. NO FINES CONCRETE
• No-fines concrete is a lightweight concrete that is
obtained by eliminating the fine material sand, from the
normal concrete mix.
• The advantages of this type of concrete are:
• Lower density.
• Lower cost due to lower cement content.
• Lower thermal conductivity
• Relatively low drying shrinkage.
• No segregation and capillary movement of water.
• Better insulating characteristics than conventional
concrete because of the presence of large voids
• The application of this type of concrete are:
1. Precast units 2. Heat a insulation cladding 3. Partition walls
CONCRETING
TECHNICS
 1. SHOTCRETE OR GUNITE
• Shotcrete or gunite is the method in which dry or damp
cement and sand mix are conveyed through pipes with
the help of compressed air, and then applied at high
velocity to the required surface through a nozzle, where
the mix is mixed with water jet.
APPLICATIONS OF SHOTCRETE
• For repair the damaged surface of concrete
• For bridge deck rehabilitation
• Repair of fire and earthquake damage and
deterioration, by strengthening walls.
• Shotcrete is used in underground excavations in rock
• Used for temporary protection of exposed rock
surfaces that will deteriorate when exposed to air.
• To construct concrete swimming pools.
• Shotcrete floors in tanks and pools on well compacted
sub-base
 2. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING
Concreting in cold weather conditions has to be given
special care due to following effects of weather.
1. Delayed Setting : When temperature is low,
hydration is low and thus takes longer time to set.
2. Freezing of concrete at early stage : When
temperature fall below freezing point of water in
pores, water solidifies and concrete expands.
3. Freezing and thawing : When concrete is subjected
to alternate cycles of freezing and thawing it effects
the durability of concrete.
4. Stresses due to temperature differential :
Temperature inside concrete mass will be higher than
the temperature outside - leads to cracks.
METHODS AND PRECAUTIONS
1. Selection of suitable type of cement : Rapid hardening
cements, high alumina cements and cement with higher
C3S and lesser C2S can be used.
2. Temperature control of ingredients : The ingredients
of concrete can be preheated to provide sufficient heat
for hydration. Usually water is heated to a temperature
of 65ºC.
3. Electrical heating of concrete mass : Concrete mass is
heated using A.C current. Electricity can be passed
through reinforcing bars or using special electrodes.
4. Use of Insulating formwork : Hydration produces
sufficient amount of heat. This heat can be conserved
further, if the formwork is insulated by suitable means.
5. Admixtures of Anti-freezing materials: Accelerators like
CaCl2 can be used.
6. Use of air entraining agents: Air entraining agents
modifies pore structure of concrete and gives space for
expansion during freeze and thaw cycles.
7. Delayed removal of formwork : As the rate of
development of strength is slower in cold weather, form
work can be placed for a longer duration.
8. Placing and Curing: Before placing all ice shall be
removed from the surface and steam curing should be
preferred over water curing.
9. Covering the concrete surfaces : To prevent loss of heat
and to avoid freezing, all surfaces should be covered with
suitable insulating material, immediately after placing.
 3. HOT WEATHER CONCRETING
Concreting in hot weather conditions has to be given special
care due to following effects of weather.
1. Rapid rate of hydration: When temperature is high,
hydration is fast and thus sets rapidly which reduces
strength.
2. Evaporation of mixing water : Mixing water
evaporates resulting in lower workability, lower strength
and cracks.
3. Evaporation during curing : When curing water
evaporates rapidly, desired effect of curing is lost.
4. Air entrainment : At higher temperature its difficult to
control air entrainment in concrete.
5. Increased tendency to crack due to loss of water.
METHODS AND PRECAUTIONS
1. Cooling of aggregates : Cooling aggregates can reduce
the temperature of concrete. This can be done by ;
o Sprinkling water on aggregate before using.
o Adding broken pieces of ice as a part of mixing
water.
o Blowing of cold air.
2. Mixing water : Water can be used to control the
temperature of concrete mass easily than that of
aggregates.
o Cold water can added during mixing.
o If temperature is too high, calculated quantity of ice
pieces can be added directly into the mixer, instead
of mixing water.
3. Production and delivery : Following factors has to be
considered during production and delivery of concrete;
o The temperature of ingredients should be maintained
in such a way that the final mix temperature is
below 40º C while placing.
o Concrete should be mixed in minimum possible time.
o Reinforcement, formwork etc. should be shrinked
with cooled water prior to concrete placing.
o Concrete should be placed in thin layers with
sufficient time between successive lifts.
o Immediately after finishing, concrete surfaces should
be covered with plastic sheets , gunny bags etc.
o Continuous curing has to be ensured.
 4. UNDER WATER CONCRETING
Special care has to be taken in placing concrete under water.
Following are the precautions/ recommendations to be
taken.
1. Concrete should be plastic with sufficient flow ability.
2. Slump of 150 to 180 mm required.
3. Cement requirement should not be less than 8 sacks per
cubic meter of concrete.
4. Fine aggregate proportion should be 45-50% of total
aggregates.
5. Not less than 10% of fine aggregate should pass through
300 micron sieve and not less than 2% pass the 150
micron sieve.
6. Coarse aggregates to be graded up to
METHODS FOR CONCRETING UNDER WATER
1. TREMIE METHOD
• Underwater concreting using tremie (pipe of 250 mm dia
with funnel shaped upper end) method is convenient for
pouring large amount of high flowable concrete.
• The concrete is moved to the hopper by either pumping,
belt conveyer or skips.
• Tremie pipe, which upper end connected to a hopper and
lower end continuously submerged in fresh concrete, is
used to place concrete at the exact location from a
hopper at the surface.
• Care should be taken to avoid water in the tremie.
 2. BUCKET PLACING
• Concreting by this method can be
carried out up to greater depths.
• Buckets are provided with drop
bottoms which can open freely to
outwards.
• Bucket is filled with concrete and top
is covered with canvas cloth or gunny
bags.
• Bucket is lowered up to the depth
required using a crane and concrete is
discharged by opening the drop
bottom.
• It is difficult to maintain leveled top
surface in this method.
 3. PLACING IN BAGS
• Concrete is filled in cloth gunny bags partially (Usually
about 2/3rd)
• These filled bags are placed on a surface and is lowered
into the water and placed at the required depth carefully
in a header and stretcher fraction as in the brick
masonry construction.
• No formwork is required for this method.
• Divers are required to place the bags in correct order
under water which makes this method slow and
laborious.
• Voids between the adjacent bags is difficult to fill.
• Used for placing concrete in shallow depth water.
 4. PRE PACKED CONCRETE
• Used when tremie or bottom dump bucket method is not
feasible for concreting.
• First aggregates are only placed in the form work and are
compacted to form a prepacked mass.
• The cement mortar is then grouted into this mass with
required proportions.
• Prepacked concrete is advantageous due to less carbonation
shrinkage.
• This method is applicable when ;
1. Reinforcement is complicated.
2. In pipes and conduits.
3. Well staining.
4. Edge abutments and piers.
5. Mass concreting.
• Grouting can be done by
o Grouting is done at top of mass and allowing to
penetrate.
o The formwork is filled with grout and aggregate mass is
placed into it.
o The grout is injected from bottom of pre packed mass.
 5. PLACING IN DEWATERED CASSIONS OR
COFFER DAMS
• In this method same procedure is used as on dry
conditions.
• In case concrete is to be placed under flowing water, then
the velocity of flow should not be more than 5 cm/sec, so
that mortar is not lost due to the following water.
 6. MASS CONCRETING
• Concrete placed in massive structures like dams, canal
locks, bridge piers etc. are called mass concrete.
• Following are the precautions taken;
1. Should have low slump.
2. Aggregates used are of large sizes (150mm)
3. Power vibrators of immersion type required for
compaction.
4. Low heat cement has to be used to control heat of
hydration.
5. Continuous curing has to be done to avoid cracks.
6. Concreting is preferable done in winter season.
• Mass concrete has high early strength but less later
strength.
DURABILITY OF
CONCRETE
 DEFINITION
Durabilty is the ability of concrete to
resist weathering action, chemical attack,
and abrasion while maintaining its desired
engineering properties.
 EFFECTS OF INADEQUATE
DURABILITY
 Loss of strength of concrete.

 Corrosion of reinforcements.

 Loss of serviceability and reduction in service life.

 Expensive repairs.

 Unpleasant appearance.

 Damage to people and property.

 FACTORS AFFECTING DURABILITY
FACTORS

Factors within Concrete Environmental Factors

Materials Process Physical Chemical

• • Corrosion
• Binder type Mixing • Abrasion
• • Acid attack
• Binder content Transporting • Erosion
• • Alkali Aggregate
• Aggregates Compaction • Temperature
• Reaction
• Admixture Curing • Freeze-thaw
• • Sulphate Attack
• Mix design workmanship • Moisture
• Carbonation
(The explanation of how all these factors effects durability has been explained through out in
this course of concrete technology. So if asked to explain you can do it in your own words.)
 DEFECTS
IN
CONCRETE
 1. PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE
• Permeability is the rate at which water or other
aggressive substances can penetrate concrete.

• Lower the permeability of concrete, higher is the

resistance to chemical attack on concrete.
CAUSES OF PERMEBILITY
• Porosity and interconnectivity of pores : Higher
porosity, higher the permeability.
• Water cement ratio : As degree water cement ratio
increases permeability increases due to shrinkage etc.
• Degree of compaction : Lower the degree of
compaction, higher the porosity, higher permeability.
• Degree of hydration.
• Quantity of constituent materials.
EFFECTS OF PERMEABILITY
• Chemical attack
• Frost attack
• Corrosion
CONTROL OF PERMEABILITY
• Use of pozzolanic materials
• Air entrainment up to 6%
• High pressure steam curing
• Hydrophobic pore blocking
• Control of w/c ratio
• Use of well graded aggregates and finer cement.
• Proper compaction.
 2. FREEZING AND THAWING
• Water in pores freezes and forms ice which causes
expansion of concrete at cold weather.
• The ice melts when the temperature rises.
• This alternate cycle of freezing and thawing causes
following effects in concrete ;
1. Formation of cracks.
2. Reduction in strength.
3. Surface scaling and disintegration
• The cracks are formed by the expansive pressure
exerted on the concrete by water.
CONTROL OF FREEZING AND THAWING
• Air entrainment in concrete : Air in voids provide
sufficient space to release. expansive pressure.
• Use of chemicals : Use of chemicals such as sodium
chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and
potassium chloride in high concentrations, reduce
freezing point.
• Use of admixtures with anti freezing materials.
• Use of insulating material to retain heat of hydration.
 3. SULPHATE ATTACK
• Increase in volume of cement paste due to chemical
action between products of hydrates of cement and
solution containing sulphates is sulphate attack.
• In hardened concrete, calcium alumino hydrate (C-
A-H) reactes with sulphates forming calcium sulpho
aluminate, which increases volume of concrete.
• Appearance of white patches is an indication of
sulphate attack on concrete.
• Effects of sulphate attack are spalling of concrete,
cracks, reduction in strength etc.
SOURCES OF SULPHATES
• Cement, aggregates and admixtures having more
sulphur content.
• Industrial waste water.
• Soil having sulphates.
• Groundwater.
• Sulphate in water used for curing, mixing etc.
CONTROL OF SULPHATE ATTACK
• Use of sulphate resisting cement.
• Use of quality concrete with low water cement ratio
and lower permeability.
• Use of air entrainment.
• Use of pozzolonas.
• High pressure steam curing.
• Use of high alumina cement.
4. CARBONATION IN CONCRETE
• Process by which carbon dioxide in air penetrates
into concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to
form calcium carbonates.

EFFECTS OF CARBONATION ON CONCRETE

• Reduce pH and thus decreases alkalinity of
concrete.
• Decrease in alkalinity leads to decay of
protective layer around steel and cause
corrosion
CAUSES OF CARBONATION
• Level of pore water : Increase in pore water increase
carbonation.
• Permeability : Higher permeability, higher carbonation.
• Cover to rebar : Carbonation effects steel with less cover.
• Lack of protective coating to concrete.

CONTROL OF CARBONATION
• Using mix with low water cement ratio
• Maintaining low relative humidity
• Surface coatings and protection layer to inhibit
ingress of CO2 into concrete.
• Mineral paints to concrete suface.
 5. CORROSION IN CONCRETE
• Corrosion is the deterioration of solid components of
concrete by the attack of reactive agents.
• Steel reinforcements in concrete corrodes as
follows.
• The protective layer around the steel dissolves due
to effects like carbonation.
• In presence of O2 and H2O (at cathode) electro
chemical reaction takes place, producing corrosion
products (Fe2+ produced at anode).
• As the process continues corrosion products
increases, and concrete disintegration (spalling)
takes place.
CAUSES OF CORROSION
• Carbonation
• Less cover to reinforcement
• Presence of moisture content
• Poor quality of materials and workmanship.
• Permeability of concrete.
EFFECTS OF CORROSION
• Spalling of concrete
• Delamination of concrete
• Reduction in cross section of reinforcement
• Reduction in load bearing capacity of structure.
• Permeability of concrete.
• Cracks and sudden and total failure of structure
CONTROL OF CORROSION
• Improving quality of concrete.
• Increasing depth of concrete cover to steel.
• Concrete coating and sealers.
• Galvanizing steel.
• Coating of reinforcements (paint, epoxy etc.)
• Proper storage and stacking reinforcement.

6. CREEP IN CONCRETE
7. SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
(For creep and shrinkage refer to module 2 notes)