FILTRATION

Process Engineering (BITS-F219)

 INTRODUCTION
• It is a process of separation of solid from liquid or gas by means of a
porous medium which retain the solids but allows the fluid to pass.
MECHANISM OF FILTERATION
[Link] FILTERATION
• Due to sieving action, the particles larger than the pores of the filter
are retained on the surface of the filter media and eventually build up a
thick layer.
[Link] FILTERATION
• Capture of particles in depth of the filter where the particles retained
are always smaller than average size of the voids in the solid bed
through which the fluid flows.
Depth filters are used to remove small amount of
contaminants from a relatively large volume of liquids.

has a porous filtration medium to retain particles

throughout the medium, rather than just on the
surface of the medium. These filters are commonly
used when large volume of liquid to be clarified. They
can retain a large mass of particles before becoming
clogged.
• Depth filtration works by collecting particulates within
the filter media and passing a clean outlet flow of the
fluid
• Depth filtration has multiple porous layers. Due to the
tortuous and channel-like nature of the filtration
medium, the particles are retained throughout the
medium within its structure.
• Widely used in industry.
• In depth filtration, filtration membrane is made up of fibrous or
particulate solid arranged in such a manner that the length of travel of
liquid is larger in comparison to the size of particles being removed.

• Depth filtration is also sometimes referred as sheet filtration, where

liquid is passed through a series of pads consisting of mixtures of
asbestos fibres and cellulose.
 Factors affecting the rate of filtration

Diagram
• Suspension of solid in liquidofissimple filteras slurry
referred
• Formation of solid layer on filter membrane is referred to as filter cake.
The resistance to the flow of liquid increases progressively throughout
the operation as the cake increases in thickness.
Mechanism of filtration

The mechanism whereby particles are retained by a filter is

significant only in initial stages of filtration.

Straining Similar to sieving, i.e., particles

of larger size can't pass
through smaller pore size of filter medium.

.
Solids havingthe momentum move along the path of
Impingement streaming flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium. Thus
the solids are retained on the filter medium.

Particles become entwined (entangled) in the masses of

fibres (of cloths with fine hairy surface or porous felt) due to
Entanglement smaller size of particles than the pore size. Thus solids are
retained within filter medium.

Attractive Solids areretained on the filter medium as a result of

forces attractive force between particles and filter medium, as in
case of electrostatic filtration.
Impingement
 Factors affecting the rate of filtration

FACTORS
• the area of filter surface

• The resistance of filter cake and filter medium

• The viscosity of the filtrate

• The pressure difference across the filter medium
 POISEUILLE’S LAW
• The rate of flow will be high in the beginning because the resistance is minimum. And is proportional to
filter area
• Once the filter cake forms it act as a filter medium as well. As the thickness increases the flow will be
decreased.
• The flow of liquid through the interstices in the filter medium can be expressed by poiseuilles law

V- volume of liquid ղ- viscosity

l- length of the pores r-radius
p-pressure t-time
V is the volume of liquid of viscosity η flowing through the filter medium of length l, radius r under pressure P, in time t.
The length of the pores is unknown, we may consider it as the thickness of the cake.
Here, r remains constant.
Viscosity is reduced with increase in temperature.
 KOZNEY-CARMEN EQUATION
• this is an extension of the poiseuille’s equation for application in porous
beds
• This is mostly widely used filtration equation

Q- rate of flow
A- cross sectional area of the bed
- porosity of the bed
S- specific surface area of the bed
K-kozney constant
L is the depth of the bed
P is pressure applied on the filter medium
 Specific surface area of the bed
• Ratio of pore surface/volume
• Greater the specific surface area of the bed, less porous the
material is. Liquid moved slowly through the less porous
material.
• Therefore , rate of flow decreases with increase in specific
surface area of the pore (Kozney-Karmen equation).

More surface
area, flow
decreases.
 Vacuum filtration
• In ordinary gravity filtration, p will be due to
the head of liquid above the filter.
• P may be increased by positive pressure or
applying vacuum.
• Vacuum filtration is undesirable for very
volatile liquids owing to the loss of vapor into
the vacuum system.
FILTER MEDIA
• It should be inert
• Allow the maximum passage of liquid while retaining the solid
• Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand the filtration pressure
• Adsorb negligible amounts of dissolved material
FILTER AIDS
• When clarifying liquids containing slimy compressible materials. Eg
colloidal sludge's the filter medium is soon clogged and it may be
necessary to incorporate a material known as filter aid
• It may be used in 2 ways
1. Adding to the suspension
2. Making the suspension of a filter aid in a suitable liquid and then
filtering so that the filter medium receives a precoat of filter aid.
 the filter aid should be
• Inert and low specific gravity
• Porous rather than dense
• Eg; kieselguhr, talc, charcoal, asbestos, paper pulp, bentonite, Fuller’s
earth.
Charcoal absorbs alkaloids, filter aid such as keiselguhr will be suitable.

Pretreatment of material
Some materials which are practically non-filterable may be modified by suitable
pretreatment
1. Heat treatment
2. Filter aids
3. Removal of tannins (by addition of gelatin)
4. PH effects (some proteins are least soluble at its isoilectric point).
 • Heat treatment:
Heat coagulates unwanted proteins. Waxes
change their appearance.
Filter aid: added to make the filter cake less
compressible so that the flow through the filter
is not blocked.
Removal of tannins: When turbidity of alcoholic
preparations is due to the tannin content, gelatin
is added., which combine with tannin to form
insoluble complex and this can be filtered off.
pH effects: Protein is least soluble at its
iso-electric point.
 METHODS
• In pharmaceutical operations, filtration is a process of separating and rejecting
a small amounts of matter (including bacteria) from relatively large volume of
liquids. This differs with chemical processes where the objective is usually to
isolate a crystalline precipitate and to discard the filtrate.
• There are different methods are present. They include
1. Filter funnel
2. Sintered glass filters
3. Seitz filters
4. Membrane filters
5. The filter press
6. Meta filter
7. Drum filter
8. Air filtration
 FILTER FUNNEL
• These can be fitted with either paper, sintered glass, sintered metal or asbestos
according to the type of filtration.
• Most commonly employed filtering medium in a small scale is filter paper,
which consist of spongy, absorbent paper. Filter papers differ considerably in
porosity.
• The porosity is generally tested by filtering barium sulfate after formation from
barium chloride. Optimum quality paper should prevent passage of this salt.
• Funnel for taking filter paper may be of glass or porcelain. Porcelain can hold
flat piece of filter paper supported on a perforated plate. These are known as
Buchner or Hirsch funnel.
• These funnels are employed in conjunction with a pressure flask. The funnel
pass through the rubber bung in the mouth of the flask and the outlet on the
flask is connected to the pump.
• Hot filtration is necessary for syrups and oils which are viscous at room
temperature

Buchner funnel

Buchner and hirsh funnel

Pressure flask with Hirsch funnel
 SINTERED GLASS FILTER

• Filtering medium composed of particles of pyrex glass powdered

and sifted to produce granules of uniform size which are
moulded together into the flat or convex plates.
• The plates may be fused into glass apparatus of any required
shape. Which may be used in the manner of buchner funnel for
filtration under reduced pressure

• The porosity of the filter depends on the size of granules and is

indicated by a number.

• Useful in filtering corrosive liquids and oxidizing agents

• Used for parental injections, eye lotions etc
• for Filtration of viscous liquids it may be necessary to surround the
filter by lead tube through which hot water steam is passed

• While filtering large volume of liquid, it is required to pass it through

coarse filter, then fine filter .
• Cleaned by sending a stream of water through in the reverse direction, or
by chemical means.

Sinterd glass funnel

 SEITZ FILTER (Sterilization method for parenterals)
• For small quantities of liquids, this is the most successful.
• An asbestos filter sheets supported by a stainless steel disc which is
perforated and lies between the upper and lower parts of the glass
funnel
• The pad is placed on the disc and act as a gasket between the glass
parts of the funnel
• The glass parts are held by two chromium plated metal clamping
rings which are dawn together by screws.
• Can be autoclaved.
• The liquid comes in contact with pyrex glass and a disc of stainless
steel, so there is no risk of contamination by metals.
• The apparatus can be disassembled very easily. Simple in operation.
 MEMBRANE FILTER
• These are thin porous membrane produced from cellulose esters or similar polymeric materials.
The pores are uniform in size, and pass directly through the entire thickness of the membrane, and
are mostly non-connecting.
• The filtration action is sieve like and the particles are retained on the surface
• The membranes are produced in more than 20 distinct pore sizes, with a pore size range from
0.01-14 microns, in disc ranging from approximately 1.5-30 cm in diameter.
• In operation, the membranes are clamped on a porous grid such as sintered glass or stainless steel
mesh and special holders are commercially available for this purpose.
• Operated invariably under pressure with either positive or negative due to the small pore size.
• Due to the absence of fibres or particles in the membrane, these filters are particularly useful for
the preparation of ‘particulate free solution’ for parenteral and ophthalmic use.
• Cellulose ester membranes are suitable for aqueous solution of drugs, dilute acids, alkalis and
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons or non-polar liquids.
• Not suitable for ketones, esters, ether, alcohols, and strong acids and
alkalis. In these cases, cellulose ester can be replaced by nylon or
teflon membrane. Major producer. Millipore Filter Corporation.

• For filtration on a large scale, disc filters are available upto 29.3cm
diameter, and are mounted in a filter holder.

Millipore filter holder

• For the production of very large volumes of filtrate multi plate units are
available which may contain upto 60 disc filters all acting in parallel.

Assembly of multiplate disc filter housing showing the flow path

The assembly consists vertical stack of perforated screen (filter support plates) below
the membrane, and the assembly is clamped to operate under pressure. Whatever type
of disc filters are used, it is always necessary to ensure that the liquid is pumped under
steady pressure since pressure flactuation may rupture the membrane.
 Disadvantage of membrane filter
• Brittleness when dry, thus making handling difficult. This
can be overcome by the use of filters in cartridge form, in
which membrane material is held between two sheets of
meshed synthetic fabric, which is supported on a hollow
tube of polypropylene suitably perforated for the flow of
liquid through it.
• By virtue of their sieve-like action, membrane gets clogged.
There useful life can be extended by the use of pre-filter,
such as depth filter. This type of filters can remove large
quantities of contaminant from the fluid, and prevent the
premature clogging of the membrane.
• Filter cartridges are available which combine pre-filter and
membrane filter in the same unit.
Advantage of cartridge type filter unit
• Cartridge filter is used as in line continuous
filtration, which reduces handling of the
solutions and thus minimizes chance of
contamination. Eg. Combination of filters
suitable for the production of pharmaceutical
products sterilized by filtration.
Millipore filters
A train of filters used to sterilize pharmaceutical products such as vaccine. Mean pore
size of the filters. Prefilter. 0.5 um, HA: 0.45 uM, PH: 0.3 um, and GS. 0.22 um.
 GLASS FIBER PAPER

• Glass fibers are straight, made out of glass. The fibres have uniform
cross sections. They do not swell. Papers manufactured from these
fibres are available in a range of pore sizes. Finer pore sizes are
produced from fibres of smallest diameter.
• flow rates are higher than membrane filters
• Mechanism by trapping of particles in depth of filters, not by
surface (cake) filtration.
• The filtration performance of the glass fiber filter paper in terms of
flow rates during building up of retained solids appears to be much
better than membrane filter or cellulose filter paper, which tend to
clog.
When you have bigger volume of material to be filtered, the deposition
of material eventually is more, which reduces the mean flow rate.
Small volume of material has higher flow rate. Here, we are using the
same liquid for filtration which carries particulate matters that needs
to be filtered.

A- whatman glass fiber(GF/E)

B- whatman glass fiber(GF/A)
C- cellulose ester membrane
D- whatman paper (42)

Comparison of filtration performance of different membranes

 THE FILTER PRESS
• widely used in industry since it is compact and economical

• Used for clarification or for the removal of solid material as filter cake.
• Filter presses vary in design and in materials of construction, but the basic
principle is the same throughout.

Automatic filter press

 The filter press
• Square filter units are mounted on bars.
• Filter clothes or other filtering media can be used as filtration
device. (Filter clothes can be solely used without other filter
media). The whole unit is compressed together by means of a
screw
• This plates are arranged with filter clothes between them.
• The bottom plate has ribs to allow space for the exit of the filtrate.
• Filtration will be continued until the filter cake fills the
compartment, and flow reduces.
• Delivery from the plate may be separately from each plate, or via
a common column.
• It is advisable to have a tap on each plate, giving control over each
filter unit.
• If the cake is not for recovery, filter aid is added.
 The filter press
• Wide range of filter media is available including nylon,
terylene. Synthetic fibres have greater chemical resistance
than wool or cotton which are affected by alkali and acids.
• Filter sheets composed of a blend of asbestos and cellulose
are capable of retaining bacteria so that sterile filtrates can
be obtained provided the whole filter press and filter
medium have been previously sterilized.
• Moist heat sterilization is usually done where steam is
passed through the unit.
• Pressure is increased gradually to improve the rate of flow.
• Too much pressure would compact the cake too much
resulting slow rate of filtration.
Advantages :
• Simple, can be made from a variety of material

• Provide a large filter area

• It has low maintenance cost

• Produces a dry cake in slab form
Disadvantages
• washing is not very efficient
• Frequent dismantling increases wear and tear of the filtering media.

• A lot of liquid is retained after operation. Problem with small batches.

 THE META FILTER
• For some manufacturing processes, the filter presses is not very
convenient as it works on only one particular product.

• the volume left in the pump and press is large. Lot of waste if batch size
is moderate.
• The permanent filter support is made up of rings on a grooved column
• The rings are 22mm in external diameter
• These are fitted with a steam jacket for the filtration of viscous liquids
Meta filter- stella meta pvt. lmt product
 DRUM FILTER
• It is a metal cylinder mounted horizontally, the curved surface being a
perforated plate supporting a filter cloth.

• Internally it is divided into several segments in which vacuum is

created. Vacuum is discontinued when they are no longer immersed.
• Rpm is less than 1

Rotary vaccum drum filter

Poxman rotary vacuum filter
 AIR FILTRATION
• Filtration of air in pharmaceutical industry is very important
• The purpose is to produce either a dust free atmosphere where products
can be handled under clean working conditions or to provide aseptic
condition
• Impingement forces at high velocities and diffusion at low velocities
• Small particles adhere to the surface by vander waals forces
Air filtration
 IMPINGEMENT
• The particles follow the stream line of air close to the individual fibers
of filter, allowing the particles to come into contact with the fiber

• The air streamlines will bend around the fiber and particles will be
entrapped.
• Larger particles collide with the fiber, and can not follow the air
streamline path. Higher velocity of the particles is needed for the
impingement. Or else diffusion occurs.
DIFFUSION
• Very small particles (less than 1 μm) collide the filter at slow rate

• Display Brownian movement

 METHODS
• Two general methods are available

1. Based on the use of oiled metal plates or mesh

2. Dry type mesh made up of cotton wool or glass wool

3. The separation of solids based on electrostatic precipitation
• Oil or viscous filters are designed so that the air passes over a
large area of oil coated metal mesh
• Dry filters comprise frames packed with asbestos, glass wool,
cotton wool, or various mixtures of these
• The electrostatic method is more expensive but is extremely efficient
• Incoming air passes through an electric field, causing dust particles to
become ionized.
• A series of charged “collector” plates is placed, and the air is allowed
to go through after the dust particles are ionized. The charged
particles are attracted and held by the collector plates of opposite
charge.