STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS
Theory of Machines — Notes & Solved Problems
KTU 2024 Scheme — [Link] Mechanical Engineering
Topics: Static equilibrium conditions · Two- & three-force members · Four-bar and slider-crank mechanisms (graphical &
analytical) · Method of virtual work
1. Static Equilibrium Conditions
1.1 Static Force Analysis — Introduction
In machines, links transmit forces from the input (driver) to the output (driven link/follower) while doing
negligible work in accelerating their own mass — this is the situation assumed in "static" force analysis, i.e.
the mechanism moves slowly enough (or its links are light enough) that inertia forces can be neglected.
Every link of the mechanism is then treated as a rigid body held in equilibrium under the external forces, the
reaction forces at the joints (pins/sliders), and, where relevant, gravity.
The overall aim of static force analysis is to find the pin-joint reaction forces at every kinematic pair and the
input force/torque required at the driving link to balance a known output (or resistive) force/torque, or vice-
versa.
1.2 Conditions of Static Equilibrium
A rigid body (or a link of a mechanism) is in static equilibrium when both the resultant force and the
resultant moment acting on it are zero. For a general system of coplanar forces:
ΣF = 0 ⇒ ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0
ΣM = 0 (about any point in the plane)
These are 3 independent scalar equations for a coplanar (2-D) force system, so at most 3 unknowns can be
found from equilibrium of a single rigid link. For a mechanism with several links, we apply these equations
link-by-link (or use a combined graphical method) to solve for all unknown reactions.
• If a body is acted upon by only two forces, equilibrium forces the two forces to be equal, opposite
and collinear (Two-force member, Section 2).
• If a body is acted upon by exactly three forces, equilibrium requires the three forces to be either
concurrent or all mutually parallel (Three-force member, Section 3).
• If more than three forces act, the resultant force polygon must close (ΣF = 0) and the resultant
couple must vanish (ΣM = 0).
1.3 Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Every static force analysis begins by isolating each link and drawing its free body diagram — the link is drawn
separately, and every force acting on it (applied/external loads, weight, and the reaction at each pin or
sliding joint from the neighbouring link) is shown as a vector with assumed direction. Unknowns are then
found by applying the equilibrium equations to each FBD in turn, usually starting from the link on which only
two or three forces act.
Note: A pin joint can only transmit a force (magnitude & direction both unknown, i.e. 2 unknowns: components in x
and y); it cannot transmit a moment. A sliding pair transmits a force normal to the sliding surface (its line of action is
known) — only 1 unknown.
2. Two-Force Members
A two-force member is a link on which forces act at only two points (e.g. two pin joints) and which carries no
other external load and negligible weight. Many connecting links in machines (coupler rods, connecting rods
when inertia and weight are ignored, etc.) behave as two-force members.
2.1 Condition for Equilibrium
For such a member ΣF = 0 requires the two forces to be equal and opposite; ΣM = 0 about either point of
application then forces the two forces to share the same line of action. Hence:
• The two forces must be equal in magnitude.
• They must act in opposite directions.
• Both forces must act along the straight line joining the two points of application (i.e. along the axis
of the link, for a straight two-force link).
Fig. 2.1 — Two-force member: forces FA and FB are equal, opposite, and collinear along AB.
Note: This is why the connecting rod of an engine (when treated as weightless and only pin-loaded) is often assumed
to carry a purely axial (tensile or compressive) force — a very useful simplification in slider-crank analysis.
3. Three-Force Members
A three-force member has forces applied at three points only. Equilibrium (ΣF = 0 and ΣM = 0) then requires:
• The three forces must be either concurrent (their lines of action meet at a single point) or all
mutually parallel (concurrent "at infinity").
• The force polygon drawn with the three force vectors, taken in order, must close (form a closed
triangle).
Proof (concurrency): take moments about the point where any two of the three lines of action intersect.
Since the moment of those two forces about that point is zero, the moment of the third force about the
same point must also be zero for ΣM = 0 to hold. A non-zero force can only have zero moment about a point
if its line of action passes through that point — hence the third force's line of action must also pass through
the same intersection point.
Fig. 3.1 — Three-force member: F1, F2 and F3 are concurrent at a single point; if two of the forces were parallel, the third would have
to be parallel to them too.
3.1 Using the Three-Force Principle
Given a link with two known forces (magnitude & direction, or just line of action) and one force of unknown
magnitude/direction:
1. Locate the point of intersection of the two known lines of action.
2. Draw a line from the third point of application through this intersection point — this fixes the line of
action of the third (unknown) force.
3. Draw the force polygon (triangle) with the two known force vectors in sequence, head-to-tail; the
closing side, drawn parallel to the line found in step 2, gives the magnitude and sense of the third
force.
4. Force Analysis of Four-Bar Mechanism
A four-bar chain has four rigid links: the fixed link (frame, O2O4), the crank (link 2), the coupler (link 3) and
the rocker/follower (link 4), connected by four pin (turning) joints.
Fig. 4.1 — Four-bar mechanism nomenclature.
4.1 Graphical (Superposition) Method
The standard graphical approach exploits the two- and three-force member principles link by link:
1. Identify link 3 (coupler) — if it carries no external load, it is a two-force member, so the pin forces at
A and B must be equal, opposite and directed along AB.
2. Consider link 4 (rocker): it is generally a three-force member acted on by (i) the reaction transmitted
from link 3 at B (known line of action = AB), (ii) the external/resisting force or torque, and (iii) the
reaction at the fixed pin O4. Locate the intersection of the known lines of action and use the closing
triangle to solve for the unknown reaction at O4.
3. Consider link 2 (crank): it is a three-force member acted on by the reaction from link 3 at A (equal &
opposite to the force found at B), the driving torque/force, and the reaction at fixed pin O2. Draw its
force polygon to find the pin reaction at O2 and the required driving force/torque.
4. Check overall equilibrium of the whole mechanism (sum of all external forces and the two fixed-pin
reactions should balance) as a consistency check.
4.2 Analytical Method
The analytical method writes the equilibrium equations (ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0) for each link separately,
using the position of each pin from a kinematic (position) analysis of the linkage, and solves the resulting
simultaneous linear equations for the unknown pin reactions and the input torque.
For link 3 (two-force member) carrying only pin forces F32 (from link 2, at A) and F34 (from link 4, at B):
F32 = −F34, direction along AB
For link 4 (rocker), taking moments about O4 (eliminates the unknown reaction at O4 from the moment
equation) with the coupler force F34 known in direction (along AB) but unknown in magnitude, and a known
resisting torque T4:
ΣM(O4) = 0 ⇒ F34 · h34 − T4 = 0 ⇒ F34 = T4 / h34
where h34 is the perpendicular distance (moment arm) from O4 to the line of action AB of F34. Once F34 is
known, resolve it into x and y components to get ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 for link 4 and solve for the reaction at
O4.
For link 2 (crank), similarly take moments about O2 with F32 = F34 (equal, opposite, known line of action AB)
and the unknown driving torque T2:
ΣM(O2) = 0 ⇒ T2 = F32 · h32
where h32 is the perpendicular distance from O2 to line AB. This directly gives the input torque required to
hold/drive the mechanism against the output torque T4, for the given configuration.
5. Force Analysis of Slider-Crank Mechanism
The slider-crank mechanism (crank O–A, connecting rod A–B, slider/piston at B moving along a fixed straight
guide) is the basic mechanism of reciprocating engines, compressors and pumps.
Fig. 5.1 — Slider-crank mechanism nomenclature (θ = crank angle, r = crank radius, l = connecting-rod length).
5.1 Analytical Method
Let FP be the piston (gas) force acting along the cylinder axis, φ the angle made by the connecting rod with
the line of stroke (obliquity angle), and n = l/r the ratio of connecting-rod length to crank radius. Using
kinematics:
sin φ = (sin θ) / n
Step 1 — Force in the connecting rod (treated as a two-force member, weight neglected). Resolving the
piston force along the connecting-rod axis:
FC = FP / cos φ (compressive during the power/expansion stroke)
Step 2 — Reaction at the guide/slider (normal to the line of stroke), from equilibrium of the piston/slider:
FN = FP · tan φ
Step 3 — Resolve FC at the crank pin A into two components: one along the crank (FR, radial, purely a
bearing load, does no work) and one perpendicular to the crank (FT, tangential — this is the component that
produces the driving/turning moment):
FT = FC · sin(θ + φ) = FP · [sin(θ + φ) / cos φ]
FR = FC · cos(θ + φ) = FP · [cos(θ + φ) / cos φ]
Step 4 — Crank-shaft (driving) torque:
T = FT · r
Step 5 — Reaction at the main (crank-shaft) bearing O is found by combining FT and FR vectorially (equal &
opposite to the resultant of the two crank-pin components, since the crank itself is in equilibrium under FR,
FT and the bearing reaction at O).
5.2 Graphical Method
1. Draw the mechanism to scale for the given crank angle θ, and find φ from the geometry (or sin φ =
sin θ / n).
2. The connecting rod AB is a two-force member (weight neglected), so its force FC acts along BA.
3. At the slider (B): three forces act — piston force FP (known, along line of stroke), rod force FC
(known direction, along AB) and normal guide reaction FN (known direction, ⊥ to line of stroke).
Draw the force triangle to scale to get FC and FN.
4. At the crank pin (A): the force FC (now known fully, equal & opposite reaction from the rod) is
resolved graphically along and perpendicular to the crank OA to read off FR and FT directly to scale.
5. Driving torque T = FT × r (from the measured FT and known crank radius r).
Note: Graphical and analytical results should agree; the graphical method is a quick check and is especially useful for
irregular/compound mechanisms where writing direct equations is cumbersome.
6. Method of Virtual Work
The principle of virtual work states that for a mechanism in equilibrium, the total work done by all the
external forces and torques acting on it, during any small (virtual) displacement consistent with the
constraints of the mechanism, is zero.
ΣF · δs + ΣT · δθ = 0 (sum over all external forces/torques and their
corresponding virtual displacements)
The great advantage of this method is that internal pin reactions never appear in the work equation (since
they do no net work — the equal and opposite forces at a frictionless joint undergo the same displacement),
so a single scalar equation directly relates the input force/torque to the output force/torque, without
solving for any intermediate pin reactions.
6.1 Procedure
1. Identify all external active forces/torques on the mechanism (input driving force/torque, output
resisting force/torque, weights if considered).
2. Give the mechanism a small virtual (imaginary) displacement δθ consistent with its one degree of
freedom, and express every other displacement in terms of this one variable using the
velocity/displacement relations of the mechanism (i.e. differentiate the position/kinematic
equations).
3. Write the virtual-work equation ΣF·δs + ΣT·δθ = 0, substitute the kinematic relations, and solve for
the required unknown force or torque.
Note: Because velocity ratios and displacement ratios of a rigid mechanism are identical (both come from the same
kinematic constraint), the virtual-work method gives the same relation as equating input power to output power for
an ideal (frictionless) mechanism: Fin·Vin = Fout·Vout.
6.2 Application to the Slider-Crank Mechanism
Let the piston force be FP and the crank (driving) torque be T for a virtual rotation δθ of the crank producing
a virtual displacement δx of the piston along the line of stroke.
T · δθ − FP · δx = 0 ⇒ T = FP · (δx/δθ) = FP · (dx/dθ)
where dx/dθ is obtained by differentiating the slider displacement equation x(θ) = r cos θ + l cos φ (with sin
φ = sin θ/n) with respect to θ. This directly reproduces the result T = FP·r·[sin(θ+φ)/cos φ] obtained earlier
by the force-resolution method, confirming the consistency of the two approaches.
7. Solved Problems
Problem 1: Two-force member — link in a pin-jointed frame
A straight link AB of a mechanism is pinned at A and B only, and carries no other load. The pin reaction at A
is found (from the rest of the mechanism) to be 800 N acting at 30° to AB. Find the reaction at B and
comment on its direction.
Solution:
Since AB carries forces at only two points and no other load, it is a two-force member. For equilibrium, the
two end forces must be equal, opposite and collinear along AB.
But a two-force member cannot have its end force inclined to its own axis unless the member itself is bent,
or unless the 800 N already represents the true line of action (i.e. AB itself must lie along the direction of the
resultant force system). In practice, this tells us that if AB is straight and truly two-force, the reaction at A
must actually act along AB — so restating the problem: the pin reaction at A, resolved, must have no
component perpendicular to AB. Taking the given 800 N as the actual force transmitted through the pin:
FB = FA = 800 N, direction: along BA, opposite sense to FA
Hence the reaction at B is 800 N, directed along AB, opposite in sense to the reaction at A — i.e. if A pulls the
link (tension), B also pulls the link with 800 N at the other end (equal tension throughout); if A pushes, the
link is in 800 N compression throughout.
Problem 2: Three-force member — bell-crank lever
A bell-crank lever ABC is pivoted at O. A force of 500 N acts vertically downward at A, and a horizontal force
acts at B. Point C is the pivot connection to the frame. Given: OA = 250 mm (vertical arm), OB = 150 mm
(horizontal arm). Determine the horizontal force at B and the reaction at the pivot O, using the three-force-
member principle.
Solution:
The bell crank is a three-force member: F1 = 500 N (vertical, at A), F2 (horizontal, at B, unknown), and the
pivot reaction R (at O, unknown in both magnitude and direction). Since the lever is a rigid body in
equilibrium with the pivot as a point that all forces' lines of action need not pass through directly (as O is a
physical support, not just an intersection point), we instead use moments about O directly, which is the
standard/simpler approach for a lever with a pin support:
ΣM(O) = 0: F2 × OB = F1 × OA
F2 × 150 = 500 × 250 ⇒ F2 = 125000/150 = 833.3 N
Now apply force equilibrium to get the pivot reaction:
ΣFx = 0: Rx = F2 = 833.3 N
ΣFy = 0: Ry = F1 = 500 N
R = √(Rx² + Ry²) = √(833.3² + 500²) = 971.7 N
θ = tan⁻¹(Ry/Rx) = tan⁻¹(500/833.3) = 30.96° to the horizontal
Note: This problem is solved directly by moments (equivalent to, but simpler than, locating the concurrency point
graphically) because one of the three forces acts through the reference point O itself.
Problem 3: Four-bar mechanism — static torque analysis
In a four-bar mechanism O2ABO4, the crank O2A = 100 mm makes 60° with the fixed link O2O4, and the
coupler AB transmits a purely axial force (two-force member). At the instant considered, the perpendicular
distance from O4 to line AB is 80 mm, and the perpendicular distance from O2 to line AB is 95 mm. A
resisting torque of T4 = 40 N·m acts on the output link (rocker) O4B. Find (a) the force transmitted by the
coupler AB, and (b) the required driving torque T2 on the crank.
Solution:
Step 1 — Coupler AB is a two-force member, so the force F34 (from link 4 on the pin at B, or equivalently
transmitted through AB) acts along AB with unknown magnitude F.
Step 2 — Take moments about O4 for link 4 (rocker), so that the unknown pivot reaction at O4 does not
enter the equation:
ΣM(O4) = 0: F × h34 = T4
F × 0.080 = 40 ⇒ F = 40/0.080 = 500 N
Step 3 — By Newton's third law/two-force member property, the same 500 N (F32 = F34 = F) acts along AB
on link 2 at A. Take moments about O2 for the crank (link 2):
ΣM(O2) = 0: T2 = F × h32 = 500 × 0.095 = 47.5 N·m
Hence the coupler carries an axial force of 500 N, and the crank requires a driving torque of 47.5 N·m to hold
the mechanism in equilibrium against the 40 N·m output resisting torque.
Note: T2 > T4 here because the moment arm at O2 (95 mm) is larger than at O4 (80 mm) for the same coupler force —
this is exactly analogous to a simple lever/gear-train torque ratio.
Problem 4: Slider-crank mechanism — analytical force & torque analysis
An engine has crank radius r = 60 mm, connecting rod length l = 240 mm (so n = l/r = 4). At a crank angle θ =
30° from TDC, the gas (piston) force is FP = 6 kN acting on the piston. Neglecting the weight and inertia of
the connecting rod, determine: (a) the obliquity angle φ, (b) the force in the connecting rod FC, (c) the thrust
on the cylinder walls (normal reaction) FN, (d) the crank-pin components FT and FR, and (e) the driving
torque T on the crankshaft.
Solution:
(a) Obliquity angle:
sin φ = sin θ / n = sin 30° / 4 = 0.5/4 = 0.125
φ = sin⁻¹(0.125) = 7.18°
(b) Force in connecting rod (two-force member, resolving FP along the rod):
FC = FP / cos φ = 6000 / cos 7.18° = 6000 / 0.99216 = 6047.4 N (≈ 6.05 kN,
compressive)
(c) Normal thrust on cylinder wall / slider guide:
FN = FP · tan φ = 6000 × tan 7.18° = 6000 × 0.1260 = 756.2 N
(d) Resolve FC at the crank pin along and perpendicular to the crank (θ + φ = 30° + 7.18° = 37.18°):
FT = FC · sin(θ+φ) = 6047.4 × sin 37.18° = 6047.4 × 0.6046 = 3655.4 N
FR = FC · cos(θ+φ) = 6047.4 × cos 37.18° = 6047.4 × 0.7965 = 4816.8 N
(e) Driving (crankshaft) torque:
T = FT × r = 3655.4 × 0.060 = 219.3 N·m
Summary of results:
Quantity Symbol Value
Obliquity angle φ 7.18°
Connecting-rod force FC 6047 N (compressive)
Cylinder-wall thrust FN 756.2 N
Tangential (crank-pin) force FT 3655.4 N
Radial (crank-pin) force FR 4816.8 N
Crankshaft torque T 219.3 N·m
Problem 5: Slider-crank mechanism — driving torque by the method of virtual work
For the same engine as Problem 4 (r = 60 mm, n = 4, FP = 6 kN, θ = 30°), determine the crankshaft driving
torque T using the principle of virtual work, and verify it matches the value found in Problem 4.
Solution:
Piston displacement from TDC (standard slider-crank displacement equation, approximate/exact form using
φ):
x = r(1 − cos θ) + l(1 − cos φ)
For a virtual (small) rotation δθ of the crank, applying the principle of virtual work — the net work done by
the driving torque T and the resisting piston force FP over the corresponding virtual displacement δx is zero:
T · δθ − FP · δx = 0 ⇒ T = FP · (dx/dθ)
Differentiating x with respect to θ (using sin φ = sin θ / n, so cos φ · dφ = (cos θ/n) dθ):
dx/dθ = r [ sin θ + (sin θ cos θ)/(n·cos φ) ] = r [ sin(θ+φ) / cos φ ]
Substituting θ = 30°, φ = 7.18°, r = 0.060 m:
dx/dθ = 0.060 × [sin(37.18°) / cos(7.18°)] = 0.060 × [0.6046/0.99216] = 0.060 ×
0.6094 = 0.03656 m/rad
T = FP · (dx/dθ) = 6000 × 0.03656 = 219.4 N·m
This matches (to rounding) the torque T = 219.3 N·m obtained by the force-resolution method in Problem 4,
confirming that both methods are equivalent — the virtual-work method reaches the same answer directly,
without needing to compute the intermediate connecting-rod force FC or the crank-pin components FT, FR.