Unit 3

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will learn the derivative and rules of differentiation of functions such as sum,
difference, product & quotient rules. Other rules like the chain and inverse rules will be
introduced. Rules of differentiation for exponential and logarithmic functions also discussed.
3. 1 Definition of the Derivative
The objective of this section is to define derivative in terms of the limit concept. The concept
of derivative is the basis of calculus. It tells us many things about the function and has a
variety of applications. For instance, in the analysis of rates of change, curve sketching,
optimization problems etc., we require the concept of derivative.
Definition 3.1: Let a be a number in the domain of a function f . If
f ( x ) −f ( a)
lim (1)
x →a x−a
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at a and write it f ' ( a ), so that
' f ( x ) −f (a)
f ( a )=lim (2) If the limit in (2) exists, we say
x→ a x−a
that f has a derivative at a , and f is defferentiableat a or that f ' ( a ) [Link] derivative of a
function f at a point a can also be defined as
' f ( a+h )−f (a)
f (a)=lim (3)
h→ 0 h
if this limit exists.
Formula (3) is obtained by replacing x by a+ h and x−a by h in formula (2).
If f is defferentiable everywhere for any value of x then
f ( x +h ) −f (x )
f ' (x)=lim
h→0 h
Example 1: Find the derivative of the function f ( x )=x 2−8 x +¿ 9 at a number a
Solution: From definition 3.1 we have
2
f ( a+h ) −f ( a) [(a+h)¿¿ 2−8 ( a+h ) +9 ]−[a −8 a+ 9]
f ' ( a )=lim =lim ¿
h→ 0 h h→0 h

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 2 2 2
lim a + 2 ah+ h −8 a−8 h+ 9−a + 8 a−9
h→0
¿
h
2
lim 2 ah+ h −8 h lim (2 a+h−8)
h→0 h→0
¿ = =2 a−8.
h h
Example [Link] f (x)=2 x +3, find f ' (x)
f ( x +h ) −f (x )
Solution: f ' (x)=lim
h→0 h
f ( x+ h )−f (x ) 2 ( x+ h ) +3−(2 x+ 3) 2 x +2 h+3−2 x−3
= = =2Difference quotient
h h h
f ( x+ h )−f ( x )
Now taking the limit: f ' ( x )=lim =lim 2=2.
h →0 h h →0

2
Example 3:Given f ( x)=2 x +3 x+5 , find f ' (x)
Solution: Form the difference quotient
f ( x+ h )−f ( x ) 2 ( x+ h ) +3 ( x + h )+ 5−( 2 x 2+ 3 x +5 )
2
=
h h
2 ( x 2 +2 xh+h2 ) +3 x +3 h+5−2 x 2−3 x−5 4 xh+2 h2+ 3 h
¿ = =4 x +2 h+3
h h
Next evaluate the limit of the simplified expression as h approaches zero.
'
f ( x )=lim (4 x +2 h+3)=4 x+3.
h →0

Exercise – 1: Use the above steps to find the derivative of the following functions.
a) f (x)=3 x +5 b) f ( x )=x 2 +1 c) f (x)=1/x d) f ( x)=4 x 2 – 5 x+1
3.2 GEOMETRIC Interpretation of the Derivative
In this section we will see the derivative as a measure of the slope of the line tangent to the
curve at a given [Link] derivative f ' ( x ) expresses the slope of the tangent to the curve
y=f (x ) as a function of the x coordinate of the point of [Link] say that f is
differentiable at a point means geometrically that the curve y = f(x) has at that point a unique
tangent line which is not parallel to the y – [Link], in terms of the derivative, the slope
of the function y=f (x ) curve at point A corresponds to the particular derivative value f ' ( x ).
3.3 Differentiability and Continuity
We will use the concept of limit to see the relationship between continuity and
differentiability.

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Definition:A function is said to be differentiable at x=c if it has a derivative a x=c . If it does
not have a derivative at c , we say it is not differentiable at c .
Theorem: If f differentaible at point a , then it is continuous at a .
The converse of this theorem is not true ; that is ,there are functions that are continuous at a
point but not differentaible at that point.
Example:Show that the function f ( x )=¿ x ∨¿ is continuous at 0, but not differentiable at0 .
lim ¿
Solution: The function f ( x )=¿ x ∨¿ continuous at 0, since −¿
x→ o |x|= lim
+¿
¿ ¿¿
x →0 | x|=0=f (0 )

If we compute the derivetive, we obtain

f ( x )−f (0)
=lim ❑ ¿ x ∨ ¿ ¿
'
f ( 0 )=lim
x→ 0 x−0 x
x→ 0

x >0 lim ¿
For x → 0 ¿ x∨ ¿ = lim ¿¿¿
+¿
x x→0 x =1¿
and
+¿

x <0 lim ¿ lim ¿

For x → 0 ¿x∨ ¿ ¿ ¿
−¿ = x→ 0
−¿ −x
=−1 ¿
x x

Thus lim ¿ x∨ ¿ ¿ does not exists, because the right and the left hand side limits are not equal.
x →0 x
Therefore, f is not differentaible at [Link] indicates that continuity doesnot guarantee for
differentiability.
Exercise – 2: Show that the following functions are continuous but not differentiable at the
x
given value of x.a) f ( x )=| x−1|; x=1b) f ( x )= ; x=0
3
3.4 Rules of Differentiation
The objective of this section is to learn the different rules of differentiation that will simplify
the task of finding the derivative of a [Link] process of finding the derivative of a
function is called differentiation.
Rule 1 :Derivative of constant function.
d d
If f has the constant value f ( x )=c, then f ( x )= ( c ) =c .
dx dx
d d d (−π )
Example 1: Let f ( x )=8 then f ( x)= 8=0Similarly, =0.
dx dx dx 4

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Rule 2: The power Rule: If n is nonnegative integer and f ( x )=x n , then f is defferentiable on
d n n−1
the set of real numbers R and is given by f ' ( x )=n x n−1i.e. x =nx .
dx
Example 2. Find the derivative of the following functions a) f ( x )=x 2 b) f ( x )=x 100
' d 2 2−1 ' d 100 100−1 99
Solution: a) f ( x )= (x )=2 x =2 x b) f ( x )= (x )=100 x =100 x
dx dx
Rule 3: The Sum – Difference Rule: The derivative of a sum (difference) of two functions is
the sum (difference) of the individual [Link] both f ' ( x ) and g' ( x ) exist then
d d d
dx
[ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) ] = [ f ( x ) ] ± [ g ( x ) ] =f ( x ) ± g '( x)
dx dx
'

Example:Find the derivative for each of the function a)h ( x )=x 2 +2 x b)h ( x )=x 2−5 x
d 2
Solution: a) [ x + 2 x ]= d [ x 2 ] + d [ 2 x ] =2 x+ 2.
dx dx dx
d 2
b) [ x −5 x ]= d [ x 2 ]− d [ 5 x ] =2 x−5.
dx dx dx
Exercise – 3: Find the derivatives of the following functions.
1
1 1
a) f ( x )= x 3 + x 2 + 3 x +2 b) f ( x )=2 x 9−5 x 3 +10 c) f (x)=x
2
Rule 4:The product rule: If f ∧g are differentaible, then the product fg is differentailble,
then ( fg )' ( x )=f ' ( x ) g( x)+ f ( x ) g ' ( x)
Example 4 Find the derivative of each of the following functions
a) f ( x )=( x2 +1 ) ( x 4−1)b) f ( x )=x e x
Solution: a)Let g ( x )=x 2+1 so that g ' ( x)=2 x and h ( x )=x 4 −1so thath' ( x )=4 x 3 .By product
rule, we have
f ' ( x )=h ( x ) g ( x ) +h ( x ) g' ( x ) =4 x 3 ( x 2+1 ) + ( x 4−1 ) 2 x
'

5 3 5 5 3
¿ 4 x + 4 x + 2 x −2 x=6 x +4 x −2 x
b) By product rule we have
d
'
f ( x )= ( x e x )=x d ( e x ) +e x d ( x )=x e x + e x ∙1=( x +1)e x
dx dx dx
Note that the product rule can be extended to more than two functions. For instance for the
case of three functions y=f (x ). g(x ). h(x )

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 dy
=f ' ( x ) . g ( x ) .h ( x ) + f ( x ) . g ' ( x ) . h ( x ) + f (x). g ( x). h '(x )
dx
Example 5: Find the derivative of the function y=(3 x 2+2)(3 x)( 6 x+7)
Solution: Let f ( x )=3 x 2 +2 , g ( x )=3 x andh ( x )=6 x +7 , f ' ( x )=6 x , g ' (x)=3 x andh '( x)=6.
dy '
=f ( x ) . g ( x ) . h ( x )+ f ( x ) . g ( x ) . h ( x ) + f ( x ) . g ( x ) . h ( x )= ( 6 x ) ( 3 x )( 6 x +7 )+ ( 3 x +2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 x+7 ) + ( 3 x +2 ) ( 3 x ) ( 6 )=
' ' 2 2
dx
Rule 5: The quotient rule: If f (x)∧g (x) are differentiable function, and g(x )≠ 0 then
f (x)/ g(x ) is differentiable at¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
2
x + x−2
Example 5: y= 3 .Then find y ' .
x +6
' dy
Solution: y =(x¿ ¿3+ 6) ¿¿¿
dx
( 2 x 4 + x 3+ 12 x +6 ) −(3 x 4 +3 x 3−6 x 2 )
¿ 4 3 2
2 −x −2 x +6 x +12 x +6
(x ¿¿ 3+6) = 2
¿
(x ¿¿ 3+6) ¿
Exercise – 4: Differentiate the following functions by using the product rule
a) f ( x )= ( x −3 ) ( 2 x−1 ) b) f ( x )=(5 x 2)( x 3 +2)c) f ( x )=(2 x+1)(x 2−1)(3 x 2)
Differentiate the following by using the quotient rule
2 2
x +2 x x −3 x+2 x +7
a) f ( x )= b) f ( x )= 2 c) f ( x )= d) f ( x )=
2
x −2 x −2 2
2 x +5 x−1 x
3.5 The Chain Rule: In this section we develop a rule for differentiating function of one
variable, which in turn is a function of a second variable.
Suppose y is a differentiable function of u and u is a differentiable function of x. Then y can
be regarded as a function of x and the derivative of y with respect to x is the derivative of y
with respect to u times the derivative of u with respect to x. That is,
dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
dy
Example: Find if y=u 2+1 and u=3 x −2
dx
dy dy du
Solution: First find so =2 u (Power rule) and =3
du du dx
dy dy du
Therefore, = . =2 u (3 )=6 u .
dx du dx

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 dy
Since you are thinking of y as function of x, it is more natural to express as a function of
dx
dy
x. Substituting the value of u, we get. =6 ( 3 x−2 )=18 x−12.
dx
dy
Example 3: Find if y=(2 x – 5)10
dx
dy dy du 9 9
Solution:Let2 x – 5=u , then y=u 10, = . =10 u .2=20 u .
dx du dx
dy 9
Substituting the value of u , 2 x – 5 , we get =20(2 x – 5)
dx
3.6 Inverse function Rule
The function f will have an inverse function, written as x=f −1 ( y ), if there is a one-to –one
mapping (for monotonic functions).Given a function f ( x ) , if x 1> x 2 and f ( x 1 ) > f ( x 2) then the
function f is called an increasing or monotonically increasing function. If x 1> x2 and
f ( x 1 ) < f ( x 2) , then the function is said to be a decreasing (monotonically decreasing) function.
In both cases an inverse function [Link] rule of differentiation is
dx 1
=
dy dy
dx
The derivative of the inverse function is the reciprocal of the derivative of the original
function.
Example 1 Given y=3 x +5 , find dx /dy
Solution:Since the function is a monotonic function an inverse function exists. Hence,
dx 1 1
= = .
dy dy 3
dx
Example 2: Given y=x 3 + x find dx /dy
dy 2 '
Solution: First check whether an inverse function exists =3 x +1=f ( x ) > 0 , ∀ x .That is, it
dx
is a monotonically increasing function and an inverse function exists.
dx 1 1
= =
dy dy 3 x 2 +1
dx

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Note that the inverse function rule is strictly speaking applicable only when the function
involved is a one-to-one mapping.
Check Your Progress Exercise – 5
1) Use the chain rule to compute the derivative dy /dx

2) Check whether the following functions are monotonic or not and find the inverse functions
if it exists. a) y=½ x +3 b) y=x 2
3.7 The L-Hopital’s rule
m(x )
This rule deals with the evaluation of the limit of a function f ( x )= as x →a (where a can
n(x )
be either finite or infinite), when the numerator m(x) and the denominator n(x) either
0
1) Both tend to zero as x → a , thus resulting in an expression in the form, or
0
∞ ∞ −∞
2) Both tend to± ∞as → a, thus resulting in an expression in the form of (or , or, or
∞ −∞ ∞
−∞
). Even though the limit of f (x) cannot be evaluated as the expression stands under these
−∞
two circumstances, its value can nevertheless be found by using the formula
m(x) m' ( x)
lim =lim (L−Hopitals rule).
x→ ∞ n( x) x→ ∞ n '( x )
2
1−x
Example 1. Find the limit of as x approaches a .
1−x
Solution:We could evaluate this limit by factoring, but let’s apply the L−Hopitals rule .
Sincem' ( x )=2 x , n' ( x )=−1
2
1− x −2 x
lim =lim =lim 2 x=2.
x →1 1−x x →1 −1 x→ 1

2 x +5
Example 2: Find lim
x→ ∞ x+1
∞ 2 x +5 2
Solution: m(x) and n(x) becomes infinite as x → ∞ ,( ) hence lim = lim =2.
∞ x→ ∞ x+1 x→ ∞ 1

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 m '(x ) 0 ∞
Note: It may turn out that the right-side expression (lim )again falls into the ∨
x →a n ' ( x) 0 ∞
format, same as the left side expression. In such an event, we may really apply the l-hopital’s

( )
''
m (x)
rule lim .before applying the l-hopital’s rulecheck the expression has 0/0 or ∞∕∞ form.
x →a n'' ( x )
Check Your Progress Exercise – 6: Use the l-hopital’s rule to evaluate the following limits.

a) lim
3
6 x −7
b)lim
√ 1+ x−√ 1−x c) lim 5 x −9 d)lim
lnx−x +1
2 x 3
x→ ∞ 3 x + 9 x →0 x x→ ∞ e x →1 x −3 x +2
3.8 Higher Order Derivatives
The derivative of a function is the first derivative. The derivative of the first derivative is
called the second derivative. If f ' ' ( x ) exists for all x values in the domain, the function f (x)is
said to be twice differentiable; in addition f ' ' ( x ) is continuous, the function f (x)is said to be
twice continuously differentiable.
Example1: Find the first and second derivative of the function f ' ( x )=3 x 2−5 x+ 15
Solution:The first derivative is f ' ( x )=6 x−5 and the second derivative is f ' ' ( x ) =6.
Since f ' (x)is a measure of the rate of change of the function f, f ' '( x)is also the measure of the
rate of change of the first derivative, f ' ' ( x)The second derivative can be differentiated with
respect to x to produce a third derivative and so on.
Example 2: Find the first through the fifth derivative of the function f ( x )=6 x 4−3 x−4.
Solution: f ' ( x )=24 x 3−3
'' 2
f ( x )=72 x
'' '
f ( x )=144 x
f 4 ( x )=144
5
f ( x )=0.
1+ x
Example 3. Find the first and second derivatives of the rational function f ( x )= , x ≠1
1−x
' 4
Solution:First find the first derivative by applying the quotient rule: f ( x )= 2
(1−x)
'' 4
The second derivative can also be found by using quotient rule: f ( x )= 3
(1−x )
Check Your Progress Exercise -7: Find the first four derivatives of the following function.
1
a) f ( x )=(3 x+ 1)5 b) f ( x )=x 7 −8 x6 +5 x 3 +2 x +1c) f ( x )=
x
3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
3.9.1 Log Function Rule

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The derivative of the natural logarithmic function y=ln f (x ) isgiven by
d f ' ( x ) marginal function
( ln f ( x ) ) = = .
dx f (x) Total function
For bases other than e (logb x ), the derivative rule is as follows
d 1
logb x=
dx xlnb
Example 1 Find the derivatives of the following logarithmic functions
a) f ( x )=ln 2 x . b) f ( x )=ln x3
'
d f (x) 2 1 ' d 3 3x 3
2
Solution: a) ( f (x) ) = = = b) f ( x )= ln x = 3 =
dx f (x) 2x x dx x x
Exercise – 8: Differentiate the following functions by using logarithmic rule.

3.9.2 Exponential function Rule

Ifh( x) is a differentiable function of x , then the derivative of e h( x) can be found by using the
d h( x) ' h ( x)
following formula. e =h ( x ) e
dx
Generalizing the above result to any base b, that is, in the form of b h(x) , then the derivative
d h(x) ' h ( x)
can be found by using the following formula. b =h ( x ) b ln b
dx
Examples 2: Find the derivatives of the following functions by using exponential rules.
2

a) f ( x)=e x+1 b) f (x)=12x −3 x

Solution:a) Let x +1=h (x), then f (x)=e h(x), hence f ' ( x )=h ' ( x ) eh ( x )=e x+1
b) Let x 2−3 x=h ( x ) ⟹ h' ( x )=2 x−3.
2

Therefore, f ' (x)=( 2 x−3 ) 12 x −3 x ln12.

Exercise – 9:Differentiate the following functions by using exponential rule.

3.10 Examples on Economic Applications

The aim of this section is to illustrate the application of differential calculus in solving
economic problems. Finding the marginal revenue and marginal cost from their total cost
function are discussed. In addition how to find the point elasticity demand or supply for a
good is presented.
Example1: If the total revenue function is given as follows: TR=15Q−Q2, where Q is the
level of output, find the marginal revenue (MR) function.
d d
Solution: MR= TR= ( 15 Q−Q2 ) =15−2 Q
dQ dQ
Example 2: Given a total cost function, C = c(Q), the average cost (AC) function can be
found by dividing the total cost by output, Q.

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 C (Q)
AC= ,Where Q>0.
Q
Find the rate of change of average cost (AC) with respect to output, Q.

Solution: The rate of change of AC with respect to Q is

d
dQ (
( AC )=
dQ Q )
d C (Q)

UsingQuotient rule
dc ( Q ) d
Q −c ( Q ) Q
( )
'
d dQ dQ Q c ( Q ) −c ( Q ) 1 ' C (Q )
( AC ) = = = c (Q)− .
dQ Q 2
Q 2
Q Q
dc ( Q ) ' d
where =c ( Q ) , Q=1andc ' ( Q ) is the marginal cost.
dQ dQ
The important relationship between average cost and marginal cost can be given by
d
dQ
( AC ) = ( )
d C (Q)
dQ Q
≥¿ 0 if and only if c ' ( Q )≥¿
c (Q)
Q
= AC

The economic meaning of this is that the slope of the average cost curve will be positive, zero,
or negative if and only if the marginal cost curve lies above, intersects, or lies below the
average cost (Ac) curve.
Example 3: Suppose the demand function for a commodity is given by Q=75− p2 where Q
is the quantity of the commodity and p is the unit price, find the point price elasticity of
demand.
2
dQ p p −2 p
Solution:Point price elasticity of demand, d ε = . =−2 p . =
dp Q Q 75− p2

( since
dQ d
dp dp )
= ( 75−p 2 )=−2 p .
2
−2 p 2 −2(5) −50
Find the value of εd if price is 5. ε d= = = =−1
75− p 2 75−(5)2 50
The meaning of this number (i.e.ε d=1 ) is as price of a good increase by one percent, then
quantity demanded decreases by the same percent.
Check Your Progress Exercise – 10
1. The total cost function of producing a certain commodity is given as follows:
2
C (Q)=2Q +5 Q+[Link] the average cost function and marginal cost (MC) function
2) The total revenue from the sale of x units of a commodity is R ( x )=50 x−0.05 x 2
Find the marginal revenue function and the value at x=400
4000
3) If the demand function is given by Q= , 10 ≤ p ≤ 70 ,Where Q is the demand and p
0.1 p+1
dQ
is price per unit. Find when the price is 90 and Compute the price elasticity of
dp
demand at P = 90

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