APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
INTRODUCTION
DR. MUHAIMEN AL-MUTAR, COLLEGE OF
SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF BASRA,
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
COURSE OVERVIEW
Course content
Overview of the classical potential field and seismic methods. The course
will review the basic physical principles underlying the various exploration
techniques and will show how the field data are acquired and interpreted.
Aim
Understanding the fundamental concepts of geophysical exploration
techniques and being able to put these concepts into practice.
Exercises
Through paper exercises and practical the students will solve a range of
realistic problems. Students will acquire an appreciation for which
techniques are appropriate for which application.
Grading
• 10% exercises + practicals
• 40% written exam
• 50% final exam
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
Geophysics is the application of physical principles and methods to
problems in Earth Sciences
There is no clear distinction between general and applied geophysics…
…but in general geophysics methods are typically applied to solve
academic questions, whereas applied geophysics can be characterized
by the application of geophysical methods for commercial purposes
(“making money”).
Examples:
▪ oil, gas, coal, minerals, …
▪ groundwater
▪ geo-engineering (tunnels, dams, …)
▪ archeology
▪ pollution
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
Physical methods used in applied geophysics:
Seismic methods: refraction and reflection seismic; seismic surveys
Gravity surveying: density contrasts; anomalies; gravimeters; corrections
Geomagnetic surveying: induced rock magnetism; anomalies
Electromagnetic surveying: EM fields; survey methods; ground penetrating
radar (GPR)
Electrical surveying: resistivity; VES soundings;
Borehole petrophysics: well logging; core sampling;
Radiometrical surveying: radioactive decay; isotopes; dating;
Geothermal methods: heat flow; conduction;
Suitable for Physical property Methods
Salt domes, cavities and Structure Density contrast Gravity
, Magnetic ores, basement rocks
geological structures and Magnetic Susceptibility Magnetic & Electromagnetic
archeological studies
Ground water, cavities Resistivity Electric & Electromagnetic
Engineering problems Refraction (Shallow)
Elasticity Seismic
Oil exploration Reflection (Deep)
Radioactive ores Radiation intensity Radiometric
Geological structures, Shallow salt
domes, Anticlines and Fissures Temperature Geothermal
, Channels, Cables, Caves, Pipes Electromagnetic waves Ground Penetration
River floor intensity Radar - GPR
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
Passive versus Active methods
Passive methods:
Use naturally present sources/fields to investigate properties of the
subsurface
Examples:
Gravity
Earth’s magnetic field
Earthquakes
Active methods:
Use man-made source to image structure of subsurface
Examples:
Dynamite, air guns, …
EM waves
Electrical currents
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
✔ (Theoretical background)
✔ (Depth)
✔ (Instruments)
✔ (Survey types)
✔ (Shortage efficiency)
✔ (Rapid or slow survey)
✔ (Economic cost)
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
All geophysical methods search for what is called geophysical
anomalies , which can be gravitational, magnetic, electrical, etc.,
anomalies. This represents the goal sought by the geophysicist
and is considered the starting point from which he begins to
interpret the various geological phenomena present at varying
depths below the surface of the earth. If the interpreting
geophysicist notices that there is an anomaly in the contour maps
drawn and the cross sections of his study, this is an indication of
the presence of a certain structure such as subsurface domes and
mineral structures that depend on the anomaly being positive or
negative (high or low). In the absence of any anomaly, this
indicates that the studied area is free of any subsurface structure.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF
WHICH GEOPHYSICAL METHOD TO
USE:
To select the most appropriate geophysical method to investigate a
certain task/problem, following aspects need to be considered:
What are the relevant physical properties?
properties? (porosity, permeability, seismic
velocity, density, …)
What spatial scales are relevant?
What are the field conditions?
conditions? (e.g. urban, offshore, …)
Which acquisition geometries are optimal? (e.g. 2D vs 3D seismics)
Is there useful a priori information?
information?
Is there a cheaper alternative?
The answer to these questions will depend strongly on the
particular task/problem
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF
WHICH GEOPHYSICAL METHOD TO
USE:
• (Scientific or technique aspects)
• (Execution time or speed of operation)
• (Economic cost)
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF
WHICH GEOPHYSICAL METHOD TO
USE:
For example, the magnetic method is the best and most effective
geophysical method for identifying the depth of a mineral body
under the earth's surface and determining its dimensions and the
types of surrounding rocks. The gravitational method comes in
second place in terms of importance, as it gives the difference in
density between the mineral body and the surrounding rocks. The
electrical method requires more effort, longer time and higher cost,
and is used in cases with good economic returns. One of the
important points that must be known is that there is no geophysical
method that is suitable for all conditions or for searching for all
needs, as other side matters enter into it that make it impossible to
rely on only one method, and exploratory well drilling operations
remain the basis for investigating various geological phenomena.
PLANNING A SURVEY
What is applied geophysics ?
GEOPHYSICS FOR
GEOLOGISTS AND PETROLEUM
ENGINEERS
In modern exploration for oil and gas, geophysics is a key to
success, particularly in offshore and frontier areas. Contemporary
geophysics (seismic) provides the necessary technology to
remote-sense the target to reduce the exploration drilling risk.
Seismic also plays a significant role in reservoir characterization
and development.
Geologists and Engineers have learned to visualize and quantify
rock properties from their physical properties graphically
represented in well logs. The challenge is to become equally
comfortable with seismic data. The seismic trace can be
considered as an additional log which, on the one hand comes by
the thousand, yet on the other, does not have the resolving
power of the sonic or density log.
Why
applied
geophysics ?
Applied geophysics infers property contrasts inside the
earth from surface measurements
Remote sensing
Be aware of biased data!
The data need to record
the true signal
Noise is also an issue
Be aware of a biased interpretation!
A physical theory calculates observables given appropriate
model parameters and theory forward modelling
The inverse problem is often non-unique!
Several geophysical methods
should be used together
Interpretation requires
geological knowledge
How many dimensions?
How many dimensions?
How many dimensions?
Ground Penetration Radar GPR section
CLASSIFICATION OF
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Seismic methods (active)
• Reflection seismic
• Refraction seismic
• Potential field methods (passive)
• Gravity
• Geomagnetic
Electrical methods (active)
• Electrical resistivity
• Spontaneous (Self) Potential
• Induced Polarization
CLASSIFICATION OF
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Electromagnetic methods (active)
• Many methods among which ground penetrating radar
Well logging (active and passive)
SEISMIC METHODS
MAINLY MEASURE TRAVEL TIMES AND
AMPLITUDES WHICH DEPEND ON DENSITY
AND ELASTIC MODULI
SEISMIC METHODS
MAINLY MEASURE TRAVEL TIMES AND
AMPLITUDES WHICH DEPEND ON DENSITY
AND ELASTIC MODULI
POTENTIAL FIELD METHODS
Gravity measures spatial variations of the gravitational field
due to lateral variations in density.
POTENTIAL FIELD METHODS
Geomagnetics measures spatial variations of the intensity of
the magnetic field due to lateral variations in magnetic
susceptibility.