Sampling Methods

Research Methods
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Learn the reasons for sampling.
• Develop an understanding about different sampling methods.
• Distinguish between probability & non-probability sampling.
• Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each sampling
methods.
Sampling methods
• Used to select a sample from within a general population. Proper
sampling methods are important for eliminating bias in the selection
process.

• They can also allow for the reduction of cost or effort in gathering
samples. A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)
collection of units from a population used to determine truths about
that population” (Field, 2005)
Sampling In
When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small

Research • When you have extensive resources

• When you don’t expect a very high response

is a group of people, objects, Within any of the types of frames identified,

or items that are taken from a variety of sampling methods can be
a larger population for employed, individually or in combination.
Factors that influence sample
measurement. The sample
representativeness
should be representative of 1. Sampling procedure
the population to ensure that 2. Sample size
we can generalize the 3. Participation (response)
findings from the research
sample to the population.
Why sample?
• Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically.
• Consider resources (time, money) and workload.

The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents are drawn
• Registrar’s office
• Class rosters
• Must assess sampling frame errors (university versus personal email
addresses; changing class rosters; are all students in your population of
interest represented?)
Illustration of Sampling
While thinking of
sampling, kindly answer
the following questions:
Two general approaches to sampling are
used in social science research:
1. With probability sampling, all elements (e.g., persons, households)
in the population have some opportunity of being included in the
sample, and the mathematical probability that any one of them will be
selected can be calculated.

2. With nonprobability sampling, in contrast, population elements are

selected on the basis of their availability (e.g., because they
volunteered) or because of the researcher's personal judgment that
they are representative. The consequence is that an unknown portion
of the population is excluded (e.g., those who did not volunteer).
Process
The sampling process comprises several stages:
1. Defining the population of concern.
2. Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to
measure.
3. Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from
the frame.
4. Determining the sample size.
5. Implementing the sampling plan.
6. Sampling and data collecting.
7. Reviewing the sampling process.
In Probability Sampling
Determining the appropriate sample size is
crucial for the reliability of study results. Key
factors to consider include:

Population Size: Total number of individuals

in the group of interest.
Margin of Error (Confidence Interval):
Indicates the range within which the true
population parameter is expected to fall.
Confidence Level: The probability that the
margin of error contains the true population
parameter, commonly set at 95% or 99%.
Standard Deviation: Measures the variability
in the population; an estimate is often used
when the exact value is unknown.

[Link]
In Non-Probability Sampling
The researcher must identify the following:

1. Research Objectives:
• Identify the study's goals (e.g., exploratory, qualitative, pilot testing).
• Smaller samples may suffice for exploratory studies, while larger ones may be needed for
comprehensive analyses.
2. Population Characteristics:
• If the population is heterogeneous (diverse), a larger sample size is recommended to capture
variation.
• For homogeneous populations, a smaller sample may be sufficient.
3. Saturation Point (for qualitative studies):
• Stop sampling when additional participants provide no new insights or themes (typically in
interviews or focus groups).
4. Available Resources:
• Time, budget, and accessibility can limit the sample size.
Different type of sampling methods:
Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling 6. Convenience Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling 7. Judgmental or Purposive
3. Stratified Random Sampling Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling 8. Snowball Sampling
5. Qouta Sampling
Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
• Simple random sampling is a
statistical method where every
individual in a population has an
equal chance of being selected
for the sample.

• This method ensures that the

selection is entirely random, and
every subset has the same
probability of being chosen
How it Works:
[Link] numbers to all members of the population.
[Link] a random mechanism (e.g., a random number generator, lottery
system) to select individuals from this list until the desired sample size is
achieved.

Example:
• Suppose you have a class of 100 students, and you want to select 10
students randomly for a survey:
[Link] the students from 1 to 100.
[Link] a random number generator to select 10 unique numbers from the
range 1–100.
[Link] students corresponding to these numbers are the selected sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
Relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that
ordered list.

A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone
directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip
of 10').
Systematic sampling is particularly effective when population members are well-
ordered or evenly distributed, and it balances efficiency and representativeness while
minimizing resource consumption.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is a statistical method in which the
population is divided into distinct subgroups, known as strata, that
share similar characteristics. A random sample is then taken from each
stratum. This method ensures that specific subgroups are adequately
represented in the sample.
How it Works:
1. Divide the Population into Strata: Identify and divide the entire population into
non-overlapping subgroups based on shared characteristics (e.g., age, gender,
income, educational level).
2. Randomly Sample from Each Stratum: Conduct a random sample within each
subgroup to ensure representation.
3. Combine the selected samples from all strata to form the final overall sample.

Example:
Suppose a university wants to survey students' satisfaction levels across
undergraduate, master's, and doctoral programs.

1. Divide the population into three strata: undergraduate students, master's

students, and doctoral students.
2. Randomly select 100 students from each of these groups.
3. Combine these groups to analyze the overall survey results.
4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a statistical
method where the population is
divided into groups or clusters,
and a random sample of these
clusters is selected. All members
within the selected clusters are
then surveyed or studied.

This method is especially useful

when the population is dispersed
over a large geographical area.
Cont.
Two types of cluster sampling
methods.

[Link]-stage sampling. All of

the elements within selected
clusters are included in the
sample.
2. Two-stage sampling. A
subset of elements within
selected clusters are randomly
selected for inclusion in the
sample.
How it Works: Example:
Suppose a researcher wants to conduct a
1. Divide the Population into Clusters: health survey in a large country:
Divide the entire population into
non-overlapping groups (clusters).
These clusters should ideally be 1. Divide the country into geographical
similar in terms of key areas (e.g., districts, neighborhoods) as
characteristics.
clusters.
2. Randomly Select Clusters: 2. Randomly select a few districts or
Randomly select a few clusters from
the population to be included in the neighborhoods from these clusters.
sample. 3. Survey every resident within the selected
3. Include All Members within clusters.
Selected Clusters:
Study every individual within the
selected clusters rather than
selecting individuals randomly from
across the entire population.
5. Qouta Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-probability
sampling method in which researchers
select participants based on specific
quotas for certain characteristics (e.g.,
age, gender, income, education).

The goal is to ensure that specific

segments of a population are represented
in the sample in proportions that match
their presence in the population.
Example
Understand the perspectives of students, faculty, and industry
professionals on integrating GAI into multimedia arts education.

Define the quotas: Break down the population into

specific subgroups relevant to your research (e.g.,
student year levels, faculty specialization, etc.).

Set the sample size: Decide how many participants you

need from each group to reflect the broader
population's characteristics.

Recruit participants: Use convenience or judgment

sampling within each group to meet the quotas.
6. Convenience Sampling
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity
sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling. A
type of nonprobability sampling which involves the
sample being drawn from that part of the
population that is close to hand.

That is, readily available and convenient. The

researcher using such a sample cannot
scientifically make generalizations about the total
population from this sample because it would not
be representative enough.
Example
Investigate the awareness and attitudes of students toward Generative
Artificial Intelligence (GAI) in a multimedia arts curriculum.

[Link] Population: Students enrolled in a Bachelor of Multimedia

Arts program.
[Link] Strategy:
1. Select students from classes or workshops where GAI is discussed.
2. Approach students who are present in the computer lab or library.
3. Include those who are easily reachable through social media or group chats.
[Link] Size: Collect data from 30 students who agree to participate.
7. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling
a non-probability sampling
technique where the researcher
uses their expertise or judgment
to select participants who are
most relevant to the study's
objectives. It is particularly
useful for studies requiring
specific expertise,
characteristics, or knowledge.
How Judgmental Sampling Works

[Link] Criteria: The researcher establishes clear criteria for selecting

participants based on the study's objectives.

[Link] Candidates: Potential participants are identified based on

their relevance, expertise, or characteristics.

[Link] and Select: The researcher screens candidates to ensure they

meet the predefined criteria and then selects participants
accordingly.
 Define Criteria:
1. Environmental scientists with at least five years of
Example experience in ecological research.
2. Urban planners involved in recent urban projects in the
Investigate the environmental impact region.
of urban development projects on 3. Community leaders who have led conservation
local ecosystems. initiatives.
4. Residents living within a 5-kilometer radius of recent
urban developments.
Target Population: Identify Participants:
1. Scientists are identified through research publications
• Environmental scientists. and environmental organizations.
• Urban planners. 2. Urban planners are selected from city council
directories or professional organizations.
• Community leaders with experience 3. Community leaders are chosen based on their role in
in environmental conservation. local projects highlighted in media reports or NGO
• Residents are directly affected by records.
urban projects. 4. Residents are identified through local community
groups or direct outreach in affected areas.
• Sampling Process: Recruit Participants:
1. Contact participants directly via email or phone calls
based on their relevance and willingness to participate.
8. Snowball Sampling
A non-probability sampling
technique where existing
participants recruit future
participants from their
networks. This method is
particularly useful when the
target population is hard to
reach or when a researcher
lacks direct access to potential
participants.
How it works
1. Identify Initial Participants: The researcher selects a small group of
participants who meet the study criteria. These participants are referred to
as "seeds.” or “Key informant”.

2. Recruit Through Referrals: The initial participants refer others who meet
the study criteria. These referrals form the second wave of participants.

3. Repeat the Process: The second-wave participants refer others, and the
process continues until the desired sample size or data saturation is reached.

4. Analyze Data:The researcher collects data from all participants and

examines trends, patterns, or themes.
Example
Investigating the Challenges Faced by Migrant Workers in Urban
Areas
Define the Study Objective:
• Understand the challenges (e.g., housing, job opportunities, Target Sample:
discrimination) faced by migrant workers in a specific city.
Identify Initial Participants: Wave 1: 5 initial participants were
• Start with 5 migrant workers identified through NGOs, contacted through an NGO.
community organizations, or local networks. Wave 2: 10 participants referred
Ask for Referrals: by the initial group (each
• After conducting interviews, request each participant to recommending 2 people).
recommend 1-2 other migrant workers in their network who Wave 3: 10 additional participants
might be willing to participate. referred by the second wave.
Repeat Until Saturation:
• Continue collecting data and recruiting participants through
referrals until no new insights or themes emerge (data
saturation).
Conclusions
In determining Sample Size, take note of the following:
• Using experience—a choice of small sample sizes, though sometimes
necessary, can result in wide confidence intervals or risks of errors in
statistical hypothesis testing.
• Using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the sample
eventually obtained, i.e. if a high precision is required (narrow confidence
interval) this translates to a low target variance of the estimator.
• Using a target for the power of a statistical test to be applied once the
sample is collected.
• Using a confidence level, i.e. the larger the required confidence level, the
larger the sample size (given a constant precision requirement)
Question?
Quiz
Get ¼ sheet of paper
1. Which of the following is a key characteristic of probability sampling?
a) Participants are selected randomly.
b) Participants are selected based on the researcher’s judgment.
c) Participants are selected from a convenience pool.
d) Participants refer others to join the study.

2. What is the main advantage of simple random sampling?

a) It is easy and fast to implement.
b) Every individual has an equal chance of selection.
c) It ensures specific subgroups are represented.
d) It allows participants to recruit others.

3. Which sampling method divides a population into distinct subgroups and

samples from each subgroup?
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Cluster sampling
d) Systematic sampling
4. What is the main disadvantage of convenience sampling?
a) High cost
b) Lack of randomness, leading to potential bias
c) Time-consuming
d) Unavailability of participants

5. In which sampling method are participants chosen based on the researcher’s

expertise or knowledge of the population?
a) Judgmental (Purposive) sampling
b) Snowball sampling
c) Cluster sampling
d) Systematic sampling

6. Which sampling method involves identifying a small group of initial participants

who then recruit others to participate?
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Snowball sampling
d) Convenience sampling
7. What is the main goal of quota sampling?
a) To ensure every individual has an equal chance of selection.
b) To ensure certain subgroups are represented proportionally.
c) To choose participants from a convenience pool.
d) To sample participants based on a researcher’s judgment.

8. In cluster sampling, how are participants selected?

a) Entire clusters are randomly selected, and all members are included.
b) Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
c) Participants are chosen from homogeneous groups.
d) Participants are selected based on researcher preference.

9. What does the margin of error indicate in sampling?

a) The degree of bias in the sample.
b) The percentage of the population included in the study.
c) The range within which the true population parameter is expected to fall.
d) The likelihood that the sample is representative.
10. Which of the following is true about judgmental (purposive) sampling?
a) Participants are chosen randomly.
b) Participants are selected based on specific characteristics relevant to the research.
c) The sampling process involves referrals from participants.
d) It is a form of non-probability sampling where quotas are used.

11. Which sampling method might be best for studying rare or hidden populations (e.g.,
undocumented workers)?
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Snowball sampling
d) Cluster sampling

12. What is a key disadvantage of systematic sampling?

a) It requires that participants are equally distributed.
b) It may lead to bias if the list is ordered in some way.
c) It is more expensive than random sampling.
d) It can only be used for large populations.
13. What is the main characteristic of stratified sampling?
a) Every individual has an equal chance of selection.
b) Participants are grouped based on a common characteristic, and samples are drawn
from each group.
c) A sample is selected using a systematic approach.
d) Participants are chosen based on the researcher's judgment.

14. In which of the following cases would convenience sampling be most appropriate?
a) When conducting a large-scale, population-based survey.
b) When time and resources are limited, and the researcher needs quick data.
c) When studying rare populations.
d) When the researcher wants randomization.

15. Which sampling method would you use if you want to ensure that specific subgroups
(e.g., age, gender) are represented proportionally in your sample?
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Judgmental sampling
d) Snowball sampling
Answers
1. a) Participants are selected randomly. 9. c) The range within which the true
2. b) Every individual has an equal chance population parameter is expected to fall
of selection. 10. b) Participants are selected based on
3. b) Stratified sampling specific characteristics relevant to the
research.
4. b) Lack of randomness, leading to 11. c) Snowball sampling
potential bias
5. a) Judgmental (Purposive) sampling 12. b) It may lead to bias if the list is ordered
in some way.
6. c) Snowball sampling 13. b) Participants are grouped based on a
7. b) To ensure certain subgroups are common characteristic, and samples are
represented proportionally. drawn from each group.
8. a) Entire clusters are randomly selected, 14. b) When time and resources are limited,
and all members are included. and the researcher needs quick data.
15. b) Stratified sampling