Types of pavements

1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement

Flexible pavement:
Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and
the subsequent layers to the surface.
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Rigid pavement:
The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity
or flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a
wide area of subgrade soil.

Types of Pavements

Design of Pavement
Design of pavement can be done by at east the following methods:

 Computerized optimization programs.

 Mechanical methods based on stress-strain calculation.
 Empirical methods in which performance of pavements is predicted from the results of
road tests and actual expensive.

Causes of roadway failure

1. Asphaltic concrete:

Pavement considered flexible and the failure mechanism is assumed to be plastic deformation
due to the communicative load over the life of pavement.

 Elastic Deformation: Temporary deforms the foundation material and compresses the
air that fills the voids of the base and subgrade. In truly elastic deflection, permanent
unevenness does not occur, even under repeated application of load.
 Consolidation Deformation: Enough load to expect part of the air and water and thus
consolidate the material. Small but permanent deformation. It progress with additional
load repetitions until the affected layer become consolidated. Failure may not result if the
traffic is well distributed. The pavement settles uniformly as a whole.
 Plastic deformation: Occurs when fluid and the air pressure in the pores of the
subgrade, base material or paving combine with forces produced by the load to displace
the roadway material. Deformation is progressive under load repetition. Major cause of
 roadway surfaces failure (material from under wheel paths is displaced to the side by
load subject to bending in horizontal plane. A high beam strength in pavement or base
will strengthen a roadway against plastic deformation).

2. AC Pavement:

Treated as multilayered structures in which function of each layer is to spread the load. So as to
stay within the bearing capacity of next layer à consequently each layer is subjected to careful
design.

3. PC Cement Pavement:

Rigid, so the slabs rebounding after the deflection due to load (as a result) the failure mechanism
are assumed to be fatigue, caused by a certain number of repetitions of significant load.

PC concrete pavements design focus on the concrete slab itself with base and subbase. Courser
considered only to the extent that they provide different levels of support for the slab and hence
result is different significant load. Primarily to provide support for construction equipment and
to provide a drainage layer.

 Pumping is another cause of failure of PC concrete pavement. Fine material in a

saturated base from a slurry with water in the base.
 With wheel load some slurry is forced out through cracks in the surface of the pavement.
 Repeated applications eventually pumps out enough material to undermine the support of
the pavement surface leading to more cracking and progressive failure.

Flexural Pavement:
Lightly Traveled Roadway:

 design by precedent à standard thickness specified for each of the pavement layers,
according to the type of roadway involved (local streets etc).
 very lightly traveled roads use à the thinnest layers of the various materils that is
practical to construct.
 Other design methods: Providing a layer thicker which will spread wheel loads enough to
keep them within the bearing capacity of the next lowest layer.

Elements of Thickness Design:

1. Traffic loading
2. climate or environment
3. material characteristics
4. cost of construction and maintenance and design period.
 Traffic Load Analysis, ESAL + Truck Factor
& Asphalt Institute
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Traffic loading:
This is the role of the Pavement Engineer and involves determining the loading on the road to be
carried forward to the Pavement Design. The role of the pavement engineer is to provide an
adequate thickness of pavement to carry the expected loads without deterioration of the network
during the design life.

The estimated or projected magnitude and occurrence of the various traffic loading are converted
to the total number of passes of equivalent standard axle loading (ESAL), usually the equivalent
80KN (18kips) single axle load.

The total no. of ESAL is used as the traffic loading input for design of pavement structure.

Determination of cumulative equivalent standard Axle (Road Note 31).

The steps are as follows;

1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each class of vehicle weighed, using the results of the
traffic survey and any other recent traffic count information that is available.
2. Determine the Avg-daily one directional additional traffic flow for each class of vehicle.
3. Make a forecast of the one directional flow for each class of vehicle to determine the total
traffic in each class that will travel over each lane during design life.
4. Determine the mean equivalence factor for each class of vehicle and for each direction
form the result of this axle load survey and any other suveys that have recently been
carried out.
5. the product of the cumulative one directional traffic flows (example, with reference to
asphalt institute) for each class of vehicle over the design life of the road and the
meanequivalent factor for that class should then be calculated and added together to give
the cumulative equivalent standard axle loading for each direction. The higher of the two
directional values should be used for design.

Wheel load Axle load Equivalence factor

(single and dual) 103kg 103kg)
1.5. 3.01 0.01
3.0 6.0 0.25
3.5 7.0 0.5
4.0 8.0 0.91
4.5 9.0 1.55
 . . .
. . .
. . .
10 20.0 56.5

Asphalt institute:
Total volume of traffic expected during the design period

Where
T1 = Traffic volume during first year.
R = Rater of growth expressed as a fraction
N = Design period (years)

Estimate the percentage of total trick traffic expected to use the design lane, the design lane is the
lane expected to receive the most sever service.

No. of traffic lanes % of trucks in design lane

(Two Directions)
2 50
4 45 (35-48)
6 or more 40 (25-48)

Truck Factor:
Multiplying number of axles in each weight
class, by an appropriate load eq factors.

Summing for the various weight classes dividing

the sum by total no of vehicles involved.

Highway Drainage Design | Highway

Drainage Structures
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Includes collecting, transporting, and disposing of surface/subsurface water originating on or

near the highway right of way or flowing in streams crossing bordering that right of way.

Drainage of highway is important because water damage highway structure in many ways. The
water which are dangerous for highways are:

Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep downward and damage pavement (surface
drains)

Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage pavement (sub-surface damage)

Water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may damage road (cross drainage words)

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It is more appropriate to take care of drainage at the time of location survey.

Ideal location fro a drainage stand point would lie along the divides b/w large drainage areas.
Then all streams flow away from the highway, and the drainage problem iss reduced to caring
for the water that falls on the roadway and back slope.

In contrast location paralleling large streams is far less desirable as they cross every tributary
where it is largest. Ideal locations avoid steep grades and heavy cuts and fills as they create
difficult problems in erosion control.

 Drainage Maintenance
 Cross Drainage Structures
 Drainage StructuresRoad Highway Cross Section
 Highway Maintenance
 GeoTextiles as Drainage
 Bituminous Materials
 HeadWorks

Surface Drainage of Highways - Surface runoff

Draining the roadway and road side:

Pavement and shoulder

The highway engineer should ensure that the precipitation is removed from the pavement as soon
as possible and that highway drainage is done efficiently. Water
that falls on the road way follows laterally or obliquely from it,
under the influence of cross slope. Or superelevation in pavement
and shoulder. A suitable value of cross fall for paved roads is about
3% for carriage way with a slope of 4-6% for shoulders. And
increased cross fall for the carriage way e.g. 4% is desirable if the
quantity of the final shape of the road surface is likely to be low for
any reason,

Drainage with pavement layers:

Is an essential element of structural design because the strength of the subgrade used for design
purposes depends on the moisture content during the most likely adverse conditions. It is evident
that benefits are derived from applying steeper cross falls to layers at successive depths in the
pavement.

The top of the subbase should have a cross fall of 3-4% and the top of the subgrade should be 4-
5%. These cross falls not only improve the drainage performance of the various layers, but also
provide a slightly greater thickness of material at the edge of pavement where the structure is
more vulnerable to damage. The design thickness should be that at the centerline of the
pavement.

Road way drainage in fill:

Most common practice is to let the flow continue of the shoulder and down the slope to the
natural ground. Little erosion, if slopes are protected by turf or if the water flows across the
roadway and down the slope as a sheet.

 Unprotected slopes wash badly

 Irregularities in shoulder or pavement concentrate water into small streams causing erosion e.g.
at low points of sag.
 One way of preventing washing of side slope is to retain the water at the outer edge of
shoulder.

Highway drainage of run off in cut:

Water from traveled way and back slope is collected in road side channel, trapezoidal or
triangular.

 Design is based on slow to be accommodated.

 Intercepting channel (sometimes called crown ditch) may be employed at the top of cut slope.

Advantages of Highway drainage in cut

1. It prevents erosion of the back slope by runoff from the hill above.
2. it intercepts water, not allowing it to enter side drain which may cause greater discharge in side
drains.

Road-way drainage in urban areas:

Water falling on the road surface generally flows along the gutter to curbs or gutter inlets and
from them to underground storm drains.

 Expensive as compared to rural area drainage works.

 We have certain justification i.e. large volume of traffic, pedestrian’s property.
 Designed to limit the spread of water over the traveled lanes to some arbitrary
maximum.
 Inlets at low points should be designed for longer return period.

Highway runoff drainage in rural areas:

Generally open unlined drains with suitable x-section and longitudinal slope are provided
parallel to road alignment, called longitudinal drains. In embankment they are provided on one or
both side beyond the toe. In cutting area it is installed on either side of formation.

Construction of deep open drains may be undesirable (restriction of space). In such cases
covered drains or drainage trenches properly filled with layers of coarse sand and gravel may be
used.

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 Cross Drainage Structures & Works
When a low laying areas or a stream or a river crosses the alignment of road, arrangements
should be made to allow the water of stream or river to pass on the other side of road. The water
is passed by structures known as cross drainage works. These include road culverts, bridge and
cause ways.

1. Culverts:

Encompasses practically all closed conduits employed fro highway drainage with the exception
of storm drains (covered pipes in urban area)

 [B.S.S](a) A drain sewer or water covers totally enclosed and usually of a size through which a
man can pass.
 (b) An opening through on embankment for the conveyance of water by mean of pipe or an
enclosed channel.

2. Bridges:

Bridges are used in runoff drainage systems where stream span is large, for which special
designs are made almost in every case > 6m.

Common culvert types are;

 Pipe culvert
 Arch pipe culvert
 Box culvert
 Bridge culvert
 Arch culvert

3. Cut off walls:

Extending below the level of expected scour.

 Culverts are usually installed in the original stream bed with their grades confirming to those of
natural channel. In this way distribution to stream flow and the erosion problem it create are
held to minimum.

4. Dips or cause ways in Highway Drainage:

A dip is formed by lowering the roadway grade to the level of the stream from the bank to bank
of the stream. Vertical curves at each end transition back to the regular grade line. Washing of
the roadway surface is prevented by curtain wall of concrete rubble masonry. With proper design
it is damaged little by flood water, so that maintenance cost are low. With long transition at ends
they ride smoothly.

Disadvantage of dips is interruptions and hazard to traffic when the dip is flowing.

5. A dip culvert combined:

(High level causeway) has been sometime employed to grade advantage. Partially lowered pipe
culverts under the road surface at stream bed level carry small flows without inconvenience to
traffic. The larger waterway capacity of the dip comes into play during major floods.

Sub Surface Highway Drainage

 Subgrade may be damaged by sub soil water.
 Sub soil water as free water, when water table is high or it may come up by capillary action to
the subgrade when water table is low.
 Subgrade should be of self draining material so that it may pass off the percolation water that
comes to it to remain dry and stable.
 But if subgrade is of soft and retentive soil, or there are underground dprings bringing free
water to the subgrade fro that reason subsurface drains should be constructed about 1 ½’ to 2’
below the formation level to carry away water from the subgrade and thus keep it dry. ( in easily
drainable soil water can be lowered by deep or open side drains, it also takes rain water.
 Cross-drains may be in the form of trapezoidal trenches filled with selected rubble called
rubbled drains or trench drains.
 Depth is not much and the discharge is small.
  The pipes are surrounded by filler material and the remaining of the cross trench is filled with
graded rubble, the bigger size rubble being nearer to the pipe. Water of wet subgrade passes
through the open joint of pipes and enter the lateral drain which discharge into the longitudinal
drain pipe in the two longitudinal side trenches.
 Longitudinal drain carry water to the nearby stream.
 Cross-drains, staggered in herring bone fashion.
 Spacing of lateral drains is less in impermeable soil and more in permeable soil.

Intercepting drains:

For control of seepage in cuts or side hill locations.

Highway Drainage of runoff water

Highway Maintenance - Road Maintenance

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Definition / Objectives:
Preserving and keeping each type of roadway, roadside, structures as nearly as possible in its
original condition as constructed or as subsequently improved and the operation of highway
facilities and services to provide satisfactory and safe transportation, is called maintenance of
Highways.

The various maintenance function includes;

1. Surface maintenance
2. Roadside and drainage maintenance
3. Shoulder and approaches maintenance
4. Snow and ice control
5. Bridges maintenance
6. Traffic service

 Highway maintenance is closely related to the quality of construction of original road.

 Insufficient pavement or base thickness or improper construction of these elements soon results
in expensive patching or surface repair.
 Shoulder care becomes a serious problem where narrow lanes force heavy vehicle to travel with
one set of wheels off the pavement.
 Improperly designed drainage facilities, mean erosion or deposition of material and costly
cleaning operation or other corrective measures.
  Sharp ditches and steep slopes require manual maintenance as compare to cheap maintenance
of flatter ditch and soil by machine.
 In snowy country, improper location extremely low fills and narrow cuts leave no room for snow
storage, creating extremely difficult snow removal problems.

1. Surface maintenance of Roads

Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs, restore riding quality and maintain the
structural integrity of the pavement over its full design life.

Asphalt concrete pavements are subjected to various types of pavement distress or Failure these
include.

i. Alligator Cracking:

A series of interconnecting or interlaced cracks caused by fatigue of the asphalt concrete surface
under repeated traffic leading. [Cracking is due to foundation movement at subgrade]

ii. Block Cracking:

Cracks forming large interconnected polygon usually with sharp corners or angles. These cracks
are generated by hardening or shrinking e.g. asphalt or reflection cracking for underlying layers
such as cement treated base.

iii. Transverse Cracking:

Cracks approximately at right angle to the pavement center line. These may be caused by
hardness and shrinkage of asphalt or differential thermal stresses of asphalt concrete or may be
reflection cracking.

iv. Longitudinal Cracking:

Cracks approximately parallel to the pavement centerline. These are caused by poorly
constructed
construction joints
and shrinkage of
the asphalt
concrete surface.
Longitudinal
cracks may also be
reflection cracks.

v. Raveling:

Wearing away the

pavement surface
caused by dislodging of aggregate particles and binders. This is usually a result of insufficient
asphalt binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt from particles of aggregate.

vi. Drip Track Raveling:

Progressive disintegration of the surface between wheel paths caused by dripping of gasoline oil
from vehicle.

vii. Bleeding or Flushing (Fatting Up):

The exuding of bitumen on to the pavement surface causing reduction in skid resistance.
Bleeding is generally caused by excessive amount of asphalt in the mix or low air void content. It
occurs in the mix in hot weather.

viii. Corrugations:

Due to instability of base or poor original riding surface (plastic movement of pavement)

ix. Pot Holes:

When cracks become deep.

x. Ruts:

Depressions formed under the wheel due to heavy load, this causes consolidation, deformation or
plastic flow.

General surface maintenance:

o For maintenance of gravel roads blading and occasional resurfacing is required.

o For surface treatments of low type bituminous surface in maintenance of roads;
Patching, seal coating or possible loosening oiling, re mixing and relaying are involved.
o For high type bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete, the Removal and
replacement of failure areas and resurfacing are approximate treatment methods for
highway maintenance.
o Use same material and methods for road surface maintenance as fas as possible.
o Highway Maintenance must be planned for rapid performance and to cause least
possible disruption or hazard to traffic.

2. Roadside and Highway Drainage maintenance

Depends on the characters of road side where the roadside is grassy it must be mowed; cutting,
ploughing or spraying with weed killer must be done.

 If there is dry grass fire hazard burning, plowing must be done.

  When back slope is covered with bush, trimming must be done to increase the sight distance
and clearance of road.
 Control of side slope erosion by mulching, seeding etc.
 Picking up litter, thrown or blown along roadside or wayside area a Routine work.
 Drainage of Highway Maintenance: Keeping ditch, culvert and other drainage structure, clean
and ready to carry next flow water. Sediments deposited during period of heavy flow must be
removed badly eroded channel and dikes properly protected to prevent recurrence.

3. Shoulders:
Depend on the surface character of these areas

 SOD shoulders must be moved and occasionally bladed down to the level of the roadway so that
water is not trapped in the traveled way. Gross must be kept in good condition.
 Shoulders protected by bituminous blankets or surface treatments same as for roadway surface.
 Gravel and earth shoulders that leaves a drop off at the pavement edges creates a serious
accident hazard, hence, should be corrected by reconstruction, resurfacing or other appropriate
means.
 Due to continuous wetting and drying of shoulder, edge joints result between lane and shoulder
which may cause settlement of pavement due to entrance of water in sub grade soil. It can
Repaired by filling the joint with sand and asphalt concrete

4. Snow and ice control:

Ice forming on the roadway reduces coefficient of friction between tires and surface, which
makes vehicle control almost impossible. In highway maintenance we can apply abrasive to
heavily traveled roadway and street.

Suitable materials that can be used are clean and sharp sand, cinders and washed stone screening.

5. Bridge maintenance:
Bridges maintenance is a major part of
highway maintenance. Bridges can be
maintained in good condition by following the
below guidelines:

 Exposed steel work must be cleaned by

sand blasting flame or other means
followed by repainting.
 Deck joint may extrude or become filled
with dirt so that cleaning and resealing is
necessary.
  Out of control vehicle, causing damage to guard rail, must be Repaired and strengthened.
 If bridge deck become rough resurfacing is required
 Remedial measures to correct serious scour around and under piers and abutments.

6. Traffic services:
Include stripping, sign repair and maintenance (particularly needed for repair after stormy
weather.

Surface Treatment of Highways - Highway

Surface Maintenance
Although the best type of surface course is pre-mix carpet for highway maintenance;

1. Intensity of traffic is not very high.

2. the pro-mix mixers are not easily available due to long transportation or technical reasons.
3. when the cost is high.

The surface treatment methods are employed. The surface treatment may be single or multiple.

Single Surface Treatment:

Is wearing course in which the bituminous material is sprayed and the aggregate is placed
uniformly over the applied bitumen mineral. The thickness of such layer approximate the
nominal size of aggregate used.

Multiple Surface Treatment:

(Double or Triple) is a wearing surface in which a course aggregate is placed on bitumen coat
(prime coat) already applied, followed by spraying of bitumen and then by subsequent
application of finer aggregate over a second bitumen coat. Generally the minimum size of the
smallest aggregate is one of the aggregate used in the preceding application usually thickness of
single layer approximately maximum size of aggregate.

Function of surface treatment:

 to provide long lasting economical surface for granular base road having light and medium
traffic volume.
 To prevent entry of surface water into old pavement that have been weathered or cracked.
 It improve the skid resistance of bitumen surface where the surface has polished under traffic.
 To provide temporary cover in case of delayed incomplete pavement.

In Highway Maintenance, For good surface treatment it is necessary that;

  Base course is well prepared to its profile and is made more free from pot holes and ruts.
 Excellence of surface dressing depends upon the correct proportion of binder aggregate.
 Before laying that first surface dressing coat, the base should be made free from all dust loose
soil etc.

In all bituminous construction it is necessary that the newly surface posses a bond with the
existing base at the interface. It is also necessary that the base is nearly impervious.

Roadway Cross Section | Typical Highway

Cross Section
See road Cross Section details
The typical cross section provided by AASHTO for a two lane highway is given below.

Click on the Image to Enlarge

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Also see Road Structure

Highway Cross Section Elements

1. LANE WIDTH OR HIGHWAY TRAVEL WAY:

In meeting oncoming vehicle or passing slower ones, the portion selected by a driver depends
primarily on the paved surfaced width of the highway. The width of the surfaced road and the no
of lanes sho7uld are adequate to accommodate the type and volume of traffic anticipated and the
assumed design speed of vehicles.

As traffic density, vehicle speed and truck widths have increased, two lane highway have also
increased in width from 16’ to the current recommended value of 24’ width 10; stabilized or
paved shoulders on either side along primary routes.

Standard for the interstate system set lane width at 11’ for rural roads when traffic density is less
than 200 vehicles per lane per hour.

For other rural and all urban facilities widths are set to be 22’. For primary highway carrying
over 200 vehicles, lane widths are 11’ per 12’ depending on design speed and no of commercial
vehicles.

For secondary roads desirable lane is 10’.

2. MEDIAN SRIP FOR DIVIDED HIGHWAY:-

In order to provide positive protection against a conflict with opposing traffic median strop are
provided on divided highways.

The width of these median strip varies from 4’ to 60’.

Where median strips are narrow separation, is merely provided by raised curbs and, where
greater widths are available curbs may (or may not) be used. Often in rural areas the wide
division aline serves the purpose and no raised barrier is employed.

ADVANTAGES of Median of a road

Are given as;

1. The chance of freak accidents which might produce head on collision over a narrow
median is reduced.
2. Headlights glare from opposing traffic is less troublesome.
3. At intersection, a wide median provides refuge from crossing traffic.
Due to high cost of land, narrow width is provided at normal sections and added widths where
right turn or x-traffic are to be accommodate are used.

Medians are often narrowed at grade separation in order to reduce the length or width of the
structure.

Median width of 60’ or wide are inadvisable at signalized intersection locations because extra
time is required.

WIDTH - (INTERSTATE)

Rural Urban

40’ 12’

15’ 4’

Desirable Minimum

3. SHOULDERS in Highway Cross Section :

It is that portion of the roadway between the outer edge of the outer traffic lane and the inside
edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or slope.

Shoulders are provided for the safe operation and to allow the development of full traffic
capacity. Shoulder provides a place for vehicle to park for changing tires.

DIMENSIONS:

1. Outside shoulders are width of at least 10’ and preferably, 12’ that is clear of all
obstructions is desirable for all heavily traveled and high speed highways.
2. Inside shoulder are often not as wide (often 4’)
3. Mountainous areas: due to extra cost, the width is kept less, the use of partial shoulder
may be permitted (protrude 1’-4’ into adjacent lane) under these conditions, emergency
parking pull outs are provided.
4. In section with guardrails or other vertical elements, an additional 2’ of shoulder
widening should be provided.

It is common to pave it inside from 18” to 3’ with bituminous material or at least to apply
bituminous surface treatment. In some instances, full width is paved or treated. Turfed shoulders
are provided in areas with sufficient rainfall. It is common practice to mark the line between
roadway and shoulder as guide.

Slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of pavement shoulder with high type surface.
Slope form 2 to 6%, gravel 4 to 6% and turf 6 to 8% to assure efficient drainage away from
pavements.

 One argument for wide, continuous shoulder is that they add structural strength to the
pavement.
 Outside shoulder increase horizontal sight distance on curve.

4. SIDE SLOPES in Roadway Cross Section:

The graded area immediately adjacent to the graded roadway shoulder is called side slope

Highway Cross Section - Types of Side slopes:

BACKSLOPE: - Slopes back to natural topography are known as back slope.

FARESLOPE: - Slopes down to ditch are called fare slope.

Types of pavements
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1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement

Flexible pavement:
Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and the subsequent layers to the
surface.

Rigid pavement:
The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or slab
action so the load is distributed over a wide area of subgrade soil.

Flexible pavement: Definition

Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of subgrade and the subsequent layers to the
surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no reinforcement or with a specialized fabric
reinforcement that permits limited flow or repositioning of the roadbed under ground changes.

The design of flexible pavement is based on load distributing characteristic of the component
layers. The black top pavement including water & gravel bound macadam fall in this category.

Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible flexible strength flexible in their
structural action). The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to
the lower layers by grain transfer through contact points of granular structure.

The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the wheel
load and is equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute the stress
to large area in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased in the lower layer.

As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has
to be strongest as the highest compressive stresses.

To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take up only
lesser magnitude of stress as there is no direct wearing action die to traffic loads, therefore
inferior material with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.

Rigid pavement: Definition

The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or slab
action so the load is distributed over a wide area of subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs
with steel reinforcement.

The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either plan, reinforced or prestressed
concrete.

Critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum flexural stress occurring in
the slab due to wheel load and the temperature changes.

Rigid pavement is designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory.

Advantages of Rigid Pavement

1. Rigid lasts much, much longer i.e 30+ years compared to 5-10 years of flexible
pavements.
2. In the long run it is about half the cost to install and maintain. But the initial costs are
somewhat high.
3. Rigid pavement has the ability to bridge small imperfections in the subgrade.
4. Less Maintenance cost and Continuous Traffic and Flow.
5. High efficiency in terms of functionality

Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

1. Deformation in the sub grade is
transferred to the upper layers
1. Deformation in the subgrade is not
2.[1.] Design is based on load distributing
transferred to subsequent layers
characteristics of the component layers
2. Design is based on flexural strength or
3.[2.] Have low flexural strength
slab action
4.[3.] Load is transferred by grain to grain
3. Have high flexural strength
contact
4. No such phenomenon of grain to grain
5.[4.] Have low completion cost but repairing
load transfer exists
cost is high
5. Have low repairing cost but
6.[5.] Have low life span
completion cost is high
7.[6.] Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the
6. Life span is more as compare to
sub grade but a sub base is needed
flexible
8.[7.] No thermal stresses are induced as the
7. Surfacing can be directly laid on the
pavement have the ability to contract and
sub grade
expand freely
8. Thermal stresses are more vulnerable
9.[8.] Thats why expansion joints are not
to be induced as the ability to contract
needed
and expand is very less in concrete
10.[9.] Strength of the road is highly
9. Thats why expansion joints are needed
dependent on the strength of the sub
10. Strength of the road is less dependent
grade
on the strength of the sub grade
11.[10.] Rolling of the surfacing is needed
11. Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
12.[11.] Road can be used for traffic within
12. Road cannot be used until 14 days of
24 hours
curing
13.[12.] Force of friction is less Deformation
13. Force of friction is high
in the sub grade is not transferred to the
upper layers.

Geometric design of highways

Learning Objectives

To understand the considerations and

quantifiable aspects of geometric design consider

Advertisements 1. Locational Design

2. Current land use
3. Geology
4. Future land use
5. Existing infrastructure
Controls and Criteria

 Design Vehicles
o Passenger cars, buses, trucks, RVs
o Physical characteristics: weight, dimensions
o Establish intersection radius, pavement markings
 Vehicle Performance
o Operating characteristics: accel/decel
o Impacts air quality, noise, land use

Driver

 Information handling
 Reaction time
o Time to perceive + react to a hazard in
vehicle’s path
o Expected/unexpected
 Speed
 Driver errors
 Traffic
 Composition and volume
o Average daily traffic (ADT) is not
adequate
o Design hourly volume (DHV)
o 30th-highest hourly volume (30HV) in
one year
o K-factor (% of ADT; 8~12% urban,
12~18% rural)
 Speed of the vehicles
o Operating Speed (typically the 85th
percentile speed)
o Free-flow Speed (close to zero density)
o Running Speed (actual speed)
o Design Speed (as high as practical)
 Capacity
o Maximum hourly flow rate (per lane) under prevailing conditions
o Determines adequacy of existing roadways
o Helps select roadway type
o Helps define needs
o Design level of service
(LOS)
Stopping and Sight distance
Length of roadway that should be visible ahead of you in order to ensure that you will be able to
stop if there is an object in your path.

Calculate the SSD for a vehicle traveling on your roadway at the design speed, and then make
sure the actual sight distance that you provide is at least as great as the stopping sight distance

 Assume
o Driver eye height of 3.6 feet
o Height of object between 2.0 and 3.6 feet
 Reaction distance + braking distance

 Design standard: tr=2.5, a=11.2

Othe sight distances

 Decision sight distance

 o Allow longer tr for information processing for different maneuver conditions
(table 6-5)
 Passing sight distance
o Ensure safe passing
maneuver (figure 6-5)
o 4 distance components
(figure 6-6)
 At 70 mph
o SSD = 730 ft
o DSD = 1445 ft
(maneuver E)
o PSD = 2480 ft

Horizontal Alignment
Basic controlling expression

e = rate of superelevation
u = side friction factor (dep. on
pavement, speed, …)
V = vehicle speed
R = radius of curve

Overall design procedure

 Determine a reasonable maximum superelevation rate.
 Decide upon a maximum side-friction factor.
 Calculate the minimum radius.
 Iterate and test several different radii until you are satisfied with your design.
 Make sure that the stopping sight distance is provided.
 Adjust your design if necessary.
 Design the transition segments.

Super Elevation of roads

 Tilting the roadway to help
offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle goes
around a curve
 General Practice
 o Highways, no ice/snow
emax = 0.10
o Highways, snow/ice
emax = 0.06
o Traffic congestion or roadside development, limit speeds
emax = 0.04 ~ 0.06

Side Friction

Design based on point where centrifugal force creates feeling of discomfort for driver

Speed u max u design

20 0.50 0.17
30 0.35 0.16
40 0.32 0.15
50 0.30 0.14
60 0.29 0.12
70 0.28 0.10

Typical Road Structure Cross Section - Road

Cross Section Details
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Composition of structure:

Road Structure Cross Section is composed of the following components

1. Sub Base
2. Base Course
3. Sub Grade
4. Surface/Wearing Course

1. Sub Bases:
 It is layer of granular material provided above subgrade generally natural gravel. It is usually not
provided on subgrade of good quality.

a. Function of Sub base in Road Cross Section

  It enables traffic
stresses to be
reduced to
acceptable levels
in subgrade in
the Road Cross
Section.
 It acts as a
working plate
form for the
construction of
upper pavement
layers.
 Acts as a drainage layer, by protecting the subgrade from wetting up.
 It intercept upward movement of water by capillary action.
 It acts as a separating layer b/w subgrade and road base. By this it prevent the two layers from
mixing up.

b. Characteristics of materials used in Sub Base:

The subgrade material should be clean and free from organic matter and should be able to be
compacted by roller, to form stable sub-base. The material should have following characteristic.

 Well graded uniformity coefficient (D60/D10) should not be less than 3.

 Fraction passing sieve #200 shall not be greater than 2/3rd of the fraction passing sieve #40.
 Should have a L.L not greater than 25%.
 P.I not greater than 6
 CBR should not be less than 25. See also: CBR Test Procedure
 In coarse grain, aggregate retained by #10 sieve, %age of wear shall not be greater than 5%.
 The max dia of any particle shall not be greater than 2/3ed of the layer thickness of sub-base.

 Typical particle size distribution for the sub-base (granular) when will meet strength
requirement are

B.S Sieve Size % By mass of total Aggr passing test sieve

50 100

37.5 80-100

20 60-100

5 30-100

1.15 170-75
 0.3 9-50

0075 5-25

* To avoid intrusion of silt and clay material in sub-base from subgrade

D15 (sub base) < 5

D15 (sub grade)

 Recommended plasticity characteristic for granular Sub Base (Road Note 31) are;

Climate Liquid Limit (L.L) Plasticity Index (P.I)

Moist or wet tropical < 35 <6
Seasonal wet tropical < 45 < 12
Arid & Semi Arid < 55 < 20

2. Sub Grade in Road Structure Cross Section:

3. Base courses in Road Structure Cross Section

 It is the layer immediately under the wearig surface (Applies whether the wearing surface is
bituminous or cement concrete and or more inch thick or is but a thin bituminous layer).
 As base course lies close under the pavement surface it is subjected to severe loading. The
material in a base course must be of extremely high quality and its construction must be done
carefully.

a. Types of Base Course

1. Granular Base Course:

A mixture of soil particles ranging in size from coarse to fine. Processing involve crushing
oversized particles and screening where it is necessary to secure the desired grading. The
requirements of a satisfactory soil aggregate surface are;

 Stability
 Resistance to abrasion
 Resistance to penetration of water
 Capillary properties to replace moisture lost by surface evaporation upon the addition of
wearing course requirement change.
 2. Macadam Base:

Successive layers of crushed rock mechanically locked by rolling and bonded by stone
screening (rock duct, stone chips etc).

3. In-water bound Macadam:

The crushed stones are laid, shaped and compacted and then finer materials are added and
washed into surface to provide a dense material.

4. Treated Bases:

Compose of mineral aggregate and additive to make them strong or more resistant to moisture.
Among the treating agents is bitumen.

4. Surface/Wearing Course in pavement cross section:

The top layers of pavement which is in direct contact with the wheel of the vehicle. Usually
constructed of material in which bitumen is used as binder materials.

a. Bituminous Pavement:

Consists of combination of mineral aggregate with bituminous binder ranging from inexpensive
surface treatment ¼ in or less thick to asphaltic concrete.

For good service throughout the full life bituminous pavement must retain following qualities.

 Freedom from cracking or raveling.

 Resistance to weather including the effect of surface water heat and cold.
 Resistance to internal moisture, particularly to water vapors.
 Tight impermeable surface or porous surface (if either is needed for contained stability of
underlying base or subgrade).
 Smooth riding and non skidding surface.

The design should be done so that to meet the above requirements for considerable number of
years (need proper design and construction supervision)

Pavement meeting all the requirements above have been product if six distinctly different
construction processes as follows.

 Heat a viscous bituminous binder to make it fluid, then in a plant mix it with heated aggregate
place and compact the mixture while it is hot.
  Use fluid bituminous binder, mix it with aggregate at normal temperature. Mixing may be done
at a plant (plant mix) or on the prepared roadway base (road mix). Spread and compact the
mixture at normal temperature.
 Add solvent such as naphtha or kerosene to a viscose bituminous binder to make it fluid with
aggregate at normal temperature by either plant or road mix methods. Spread and compact at
normal temperature before solvent evaporates.
 Use fluid emulsion of viscose bituminous binder in water, mix it with aggregate at normal
temperature by either plant or road mix method. Spread and compact at normal temperature
before the emulsion breaks down with its components.
 Spread and compact clean crushed aggregate as for water bound macadam. Over it spray
heated dissolved or emulsified bituminous binder which penetrates open areas of the rock and
binds the aggregate together. Thus is commonly called “Penetration Method”.
 Spread bituminous binder over the roadway surface then cover it with properly selected
aggregate. This is commonly called the “Inverted Penetration Method”.

Selections based on the requirements and economy, large volume of heavy vehicles, low traffic
volume etc.

Location surveys for Highway

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The aim of location survey is to select a route with the following points kept in mind.

1. With reasonable economy it should meet the minimum requirement regarding curvature
and grades.
2. To produce an easy riding (traveling), free flowing traffic artery that has a high capacity
and it meets all the safety standards.
3. The location survey should recognize and evaluate the routes impact on already existing
industries, business, and residential values and on future development.

Before field survey for any highway location is started, tentative decision, regarding the design
speed of the route, its cross-section, and the maximum grade must be made. These decision made
are based on the;

 Estimated of amount, character and hourly distribution of traffic, along with

 Knowledge of the area is traversed.
 And available funds.

RESULTING ROUTE: After comparison of the different alternative design, the route is
selected which has cheapest overall cost, considering capital investment, maintenance, expense
and saving to the road user.
 THE RURAL HIGHWAY LOCATION AND
DESIGN PROCESS
The rural highway location and design process is elaborated in a flow chart given below (which
are then discussed one by one.)

DESK STUDY OF THE AREA:

The possible desk study for highway of an area include;

Maps, Aerial photographs, charts or graphs to obtains, engineering data, environmental data,
social data, economic data.

ENGINEERING DATA:

All details of the topography , soil and problems like drainage and maintenance, should be
investigated before a scientific plan programmed can be suggested. The engineering data
includes following things;

1. Topographic and geological maps.

2. Stream and drainage basin maps.
3. Climatic records.
4. Preliminary survey maps of previous projects.
5. Traffic surveys and capacity studies.

ENVIRONMENTAL DATA:

The environmental data required for desk study of area includes;

1. Agricultural soil surveys indicating soil erodiability.

2. Air pollution studies.
3. Noise and noise attenuation studies.
4. Fish and wild life inventories.
5. Historical studies.

SOCIAL DATA:

The social data obtained may be analyzed for future trends in development of an area. It
includes;

1. Demographic and land use information.

2. Census data.
3. Zoning plans and trends.
 4. Building permit records, motor vehicle registration records.
5. Living standards of locality.

ECONOMIC DATA:

The economic data is essential to study the various financial aspects like source of income and
manner in which funds for project may be mobilized. It includes;

1. Overall cost of previous projects.

2. Unit construction costs data.
3. Agricultural, economical and industrial data etc.

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY

LOCATION IN RURAL AREA
Two methods;

1. Conventional ground method.

2. Aerial photography.

1. CONVENTIONAL GROUND METHOD:

In this method a field survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field.

Intensive reconnaissance is very important for highway location in a new country as well as
where completes abandonment and replacement of an existing road are planned.

The various steps of reconnaissance for highway location in a rural area are;

I. Initially help is taken from already available maps, particularly topographic maps of the
area so that most promising general route may be laid out for careful inspection on the
ground.
II. Once a route selected on the map by crude but rapid survey method, a survey is made
along the path selected on the map.
III. PRIMARY CONTROLS are then established after it which include
1. Terminal of the road and intermediate points through which it must pass.
2. Single mountain pass if no alternative exists.
3. Small settlements, for secondary roads.
IV. SECONDARY CONTROLS: Once primary controls are established the secondary
controls are then considered which include;
1. Drainage system.
2. Mountain passes.
 3. Low points in ridges.
4. Cost factors such as favorable and unfavorable soil conditions, the number and
sizes of structures, the amount of excavation and embankment, alignment and
grade.
V. POSSIBLE ALIGNMENT
1. In mountainous country with well defined summit ranges, there is usually a
suitable pass along the drainage on both sides.
2. The least expensive and frequently the straightest line may lie just above high
water in streams often; however, the rise of valley may exceed the maximum
permissible grade.
3. At times a more favorable location lies on the hillside at some height above the
stream.
VI. MOUNTAIN LOCATION: On occasion, the route must climb from stream level to an
adjoining pass or summit. The road must be long enough to provide for the required gain
in elevation at max permissible rate.
Depending sooner from the level valley will result in climbing to summit in less grade
and moderate curvature.
Excessive use of switch backs should be avoided.
VII. IN SNOW LOCATION: In sow areas locations should be confined to slopes exposed to
the sun in order to avoid icing on the roadway and ease snow removal problems.

RECONNAISSANCE REPORT:
This report must consist of;

1. Total length of line.

2. The elevation of main and intermediate summit
3. All adverse grades.
4. Stream crossing.
5. Nature of construction.
6. Right of way circumstances.
7. Soil conditions.
8. Unusual or troublesome condition.
9. Approximate estimate of cost.

PRELIMINARY LOCATION SURVEY: - After the preferred location has been established,
the preliminary location survey serves as basis for fixing the actual highway location.

 Conventionally the baseline of preliminary survey i.e. P-line should follow as closely as
possible to the expected final line.
 The surrounding are then related to this P-line.
  Elevations - At 100ft and at breaks in the ground provide data for profile and serve as
starting point for cross-sections that covers a strip of land on each side of P-line.
 Cross-section - are of width 100’ to 800’, depending upon;
1. Standard of accuracy
2. Speed of work and instrument used.

However accurate measurements are used for checking the accuracy of final location.

 The next step is to plot plan and profile of the preliminary line.

FINAL LOCATION SURVEY: Final location is essentially fixing of the details of the
projected highway. It serves the dual purpose of

 Permanently establishing the centerline.

 Collecting information necessary for preparation of plans for construction.
 The line should be established as closely as is practical to the line drawn on the
preliminary map. It should conform the major and minor control points and the alignment
that was previously determined.
 Staking out on the ground of the centerline of the projected road provides opportunity for
minor correction like small shift of the line.
 It is useful to make a new profile and accurate cross-section from which excavation and
embankment quantities can be measured.
 Sufficient points of curvature and tangency, BMs at relatively close interval and in
position free from disturbance by construction activities.
 Direction of all property lines, distance to property corners and location of building,
fences and other improvements.
 It is important to keep notes on alignment and levels i.e. notes taken in field during the
final location survey usually becomes part of permanent record.
 The final location survey is complete when all necessary information in available and
ready for designer to use. It in insured that all information required preparation of
complete construction.
 All information pertaining to
1. Alignment
2. Topography
3. Bench mark levels
4. Cross sections
5. Section corner ties and other land ties
6. Drainage and utilities