Human Circulatory System

The circulatory system carries food and oxygen to all parts of your body. It
also carries waste substances, such as carbon dioxide, that your body does
not need to organs like the lungs and kidneys which can get rid of them.

Heart
A special muscular organ that pumps blood through your body. This process
is called circulation.

The Heart: Your Body's Pump

 Location: The heart is found in the chest, slightly to the left, and is
protected by the ribs.
 Structure: The heart has two sides separated by a wall called the
septum. The left side pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body. The right
side pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
 Function: The heart is a strong muscle that beats continuously. Each
time it contracts, it pumps blood around the body. It takes less than
one minute for blood to circulate to all parts of the body.

Blood Vessels and Blood

Blood is a red liquid that moves through the body in three kinds of blood
vessels:

 Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart to the lungs (to pick up
oxygen) and the rest of the body. They have thick, elastic muscular
walls to handle high pressure.
 Veins: Carry blood back to the heart. Almost all veins carry blood low
in oxygen, except the ones coming from the lungs. They have valves to
keep blood flowing in one direction.
 Capillaries: Tiny, narrow vessels with very thin walls that join arteries
and veins. They allow substances like oxygen and food to move into
cells, and waste to move out.

HEARTBEAT AND PULSE

A child's heart beats about 90 times a minute, while an adult's beats about
70. Your pulse is caused by the pressure of blood as the heart pumps it. You
can feel it on your wrist or neck. When you are active, your heart beats
faster to supply more food and oxygen to your muscles.

REMEMBER

1
Other vertebrates (animals with backbones like dogs, birds, and fish) also
have a heart and blood vessels that work in a similar way to humans. The
pathway of blood always moves in a cycle: Heart → Lungs → Heart → Body →
Heart.

Diagram: The Circulatory System Cycle

A cycle diagram showing the flow of blood: from body to right side of heart,
to lungs (picks up oxygen), to left side of heart, and finally to the rest of the
body.

Worked Example: The Circulatory System

Question: Why does the heart pump blood to the lungs before it pumps
blood to the rest of the body?

ANSWER

The heart pumps blood to the lungs first so it can pick up oxygen and get rid
of carbon dioxide waste before delivering the oxygen-rich blood to the rest
of the body cells.

COMMON MISTAKES

Many students think arteries always carry oxygenated blood. While usually
true, the best definition is that arteries carry blood away from the heart. For
example, the artery to the lungs carries blood without oxygen.

Human Respiratory System

The respiratory system allows us to get oxygen into our bodies and
remove carbon dioxide (a waste gas). We need to breathe to stay alive.

Key Parts of the Respiratory System:

 Lungs: Located in the chest and protected by the ribs. They are
like stretchy sponges that fill up with air.
 Air Tubes: These lead from the mouth and nose, down
the windpipe (trachea), and into the lungs.
 Chest Muscles: Muscles in the chest allow air to move in and out of
the lungs.

BREATHING MECHANICS

2
Breathing In (Inhaling): The diaphragm muscle contracts and moves
downwards, while ribs move upwards and outwards. The chest gets bigger,
and lungs fill with air.

Breathing Out (Exhaling): The diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards,

while ribs move downwards and inwards. The chest gets smaller, pushing air
out of the lungs.

Gas Exchange
In the lungs, oxygen moves into the blood, which carries it to the heart and
the rest of the body. Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the lungs to
be breathed out.
Diagram: Inhaling vs. Exhaling

Two side-by-side diagrams showing the chest cavity. "Breathing In": Show
arrows for air entering, diaphragm moving DOWN, and chest expanding.
"Breathing Out": Show arrows for air leaving, diaphragm moving UP, and
chest getting smaller.

REMEMBER

Many vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians) have similar

respiratory systems using lungs to exchange gases between air and blood.

Worked-Example

Question: Describe the path air takes from the nose to the alveoli. [3
marks]

ANSWER

Air enters through the nose (or mouth) [1], travels down the windpipe [1],
and enters the lungs where gas exchange occurs [1].

Human Reproductive System

The reproductive system makes it possible for humans to produce
offspring. Its main job is to make special cells called sex cells.

Sex Cells
In males, these are called sperm. In females, they are
called eggs or ova (singular: ovum).
Fertilisation
The process where a sperm and an egg join together to form a new living
being.

3
Reproductive Organs:

MALE PARTS FUNCTION

Testes Produce sperm cells.
Sperm duct Carries sperm to the penis.
Transfers sperm into the
Penis
female's body.
FEMALE
FUNCTION
PARTS
Ovaries Produce egg cells (ova).
Oviducts Where fertilisation takes place.
Uterus
Where the baby develops.
(Womb)
Receives sperm and is the path
Birth canal
for birth.
MENSTRUATION

Starting about a year after puberty begins, girls

experience menstruation (periods) about once a month. This is when an
unfertilised egg and the lining of the uterus are released from the body.

Diagram: Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Labelled diagrams showing the parts listed above for both male and female
systems.

Physical Changes During Puberty

Puberty is the stage in life when you continue to grow and develop into an
adult. These changes are caused by chemicals in your body
called hormones.

 Timing: Usually starts around 11 for girls and 13 for boys.

 Growth Spurt: Fast growth in height. Girls can grow up to 12cm a
year, boys up to 10cm.
 Skin: Becomes oilier, and many get pimples.
 Body Hair: Starts to grow in armpits and other parts. Boys also grow
hair on their face.
 Voice: Becomes deeper for both, though more noticeabe in boys.

4
  Body Shape: Boys' shoulders broaden; girls' hips widen and breasts
develop.

Worked Example: Puberty

Question: What causes the physical changes that happen during puberty?

ANSWER

The changes are caused by chemicals in the body called hormones.

Infectious Diseases
Diseases stop our bodies from working properly. Infectious diseases are
caused by tiny living things that infect, grow, and reproduce on or in our
bodies.

Parasite
Any living thing that lives on or in the body of another living thing.
Host
The living thing that a parasite infects.
TYPE OF
DETAILS & EXAMPLES
PATHOGEN
Very small, seen with a
microscope.
Bacteria
Cause cholera and pneumonia.
(Not all are harmful).
Smaller than bacteria. All are
Viruses harmful. Cause flu, chicken pox,
and measles.
Some are parasites.
Fungi Cause ringworm and athlete's
foot.
Other Organisms that cause diseases
Parasites like malaria and dysentery.

Hygiene and Controlling Disease Spread

Good hygiene means keeping yourself and the things around you clean to
help prevent diseases from spreading.

Prevention and Control:

 Good Hygiene: Wash hands with soap and water before eating, after
the toilet, and after handling animals. Dry them well.

5
  Safe Food: Wash raw fruits and vegetables, keep food covered, and
don't leave it at room temperature in hot weather.
 Clean Surfaces: Keep kitchens and toilets clean. Wash knives and
surfaces with hot soapy water.
 Safe Water: Drink only clean water. Boil water from rivers or treat it
with bleach.
 Respiratory Hygiene: Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue or
your elbow when coughing or sneezing.
 Wound Care: Keep wounds covered with a plaster.

PREVENTING INSECT BITES

Some serious diseases like malaria and yellow fever are spread
by mosquitoes. The insects are vectors (they spread the parasite but don't
get the disease themselves).

To prevent bites: Sleep under bed nets, wear long sleeves, use insect
repellent, and keep doors/windows closed at night.

Worked-Example

Question: What is an insect vector?

ANSWER

An insect that spreads a disease parasite when it bites you, but does not get
the disease itself (e.g., a mosquito spreading malaria).

Human Defence Mechanisms

The body has natural ways to keep pathogens out.

 Skin: A barrier that stops germs from getting into the body.
 Stomach Acid: Kills any germs in food we have eaten.
 Mucus: Sticky liquid in the nose, windpipe, and air passages that traps
germs.
 Tears: Contain a chemical substance that kills some bacteria.

COMMON MISTAKES

Pupils often think stomach acid "digests" germs. It actually kills them
because it is very strong acid.

6
Ecosystems
Food Webs and Food Chains
Food Chain
A simple diagram showing ONE path of energy from a producer to
consumers. Arrows show the direction energy moves.
Food Web
A diagram showing MANY connected food chains in an ecosystem. It shows
that most animals eat more than one type of food.

Key Vocabulary:

 Producer: A green plant that makes its own food using sunlight
(photosynthesis). Always starts the chain.
 Consumer: An animal that eats other organisms to get energy.
 Predator: An animal that hunts and eats other animals.
 Prey: An animal that is hunted and eaten by predators.

Skill: Finding Food Chains Within a Food Web

7
To find a food chain inside a food web, follow ONE path from a producer to a
top consumer.

Worked Example

Using the food web above, identify TWO different food chains.

ANSWER

Chain 1: Grass → Shrimp → Minnow → Otter

Chain 2: Grass → Periwinkle → Crab → Gull

Chain 3: Grass → Shrimp → Minnow → Gull

Worked-Example

Question:In the food web above, name one predator and its prey. [2 marks]

ANSWER

Predator: Dingo [1].

Prey: Koala (or Kangaroo) [1].

8
Toxic Substances
If toxic substances (like pesticides) enter a food chain, they can build up.
This is dangerous because animals at the top of the food chain eat many
smaller animals and end up with the highest amount of toxin.

Worked Example: Toxic Substances

Question: In the food chain: Grass → Insect → Frog → Hawk, which organism
will have the most toxin if the grass is sprayed with poison?

ANSWER

The Hawk (the top predator).

Change of State Temperatures

Substances change state when they are heated or cooled enough. Each
substance has its own specific temperatures where these changes happen.

 Melting point: The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid. It

is a property of a substance.
 Boiling point: The temperature at which particles throughout a liquid
have enough energy to change to a gas.

SUBSTANC MELTING BOILING

E POINT POINT
Pure Water 0 °C 100 °C
Gold 1064 °C 2856 °C
Vinegar -2 °C 118 °C
Diagram: Melting and Boiling Points

A thermometer scale showing key temperatures: 0°C (Ice melts/Water

freezes), 100°C (Water boils), and 1064°C (Gold melts) to show how
properties differ.

Properties of Gases
Air is a mixture of gases. Gas is one of the states of matter. All matter has
these properties:

 It takes up space.

9
  It has mass (even though we often can't feel it unless it's moving).
 Gases take the shape of their container and can be compressed
(squashed).

Diagram: Proving Air has Mass

Two balloons on a balance scale. One balloon is empty, the other is full of air,
showing the scale tipping towards the full balloon.

Thermal and Electrical Conductivity

The ability to conduct heat or electricity is a property of a material.

Thermal Conductors:

Heat transfer between objects is called conduction. Materials that allow

heat to flow through them easily are thermal conductors.

 Metals are good thermal conductors.

 Silver is the best conductor of heat.
 Non-metals (like glass and plastic) are poor conductors (insulators).

Diagram: Heat Conduction in a Metal Rod

A metal rod with wax droplets at regular intervals. One end is heated; the
droplets melt one by one as heat travels through the rod.

Electrical Conductors:

Materials that allow electricity to flow through them are electrical

conductors.

CONDUCTOR INSULATOR
PROPERT
(ALLOWS (BLOCKS
Y
FLOW) FLOW)
Metals (Copper, Plastic, Rubber,
Electrical
Gold), Graphite Wood
Metals Oven mitts,
Thermal
(Aluminium, Iron), Polystyrene,
(Heat)
Silver Cork

Changes to Materials
10
Physical and Chemical Changes
Substances can undergo different types of changes. Some can be undone, while others create
something entirely new.

Reversible Physical Changes:

A physical change alters how a substance looks or feels, but does not change it into a new
substance. Most physical changes are reversible.

 Change of state: Melting ice becomes water; freezing water becomes ice.
 Notation: Liquid water \rightleftharpoons Solid ice (Heating \to, Cooling \gets).
 Dissolving: Mixing salt into water.

Diagram: Reversible Change of State

A cycle diagram showing ICE with a "Heating" arrow pointing to WATER, and a "Cooling"
arrow pointing back to ICE.

Irreversible Chemical Changes:

Sometimes changes cannot be reversed. These are often chemical changes where one substance
turns into another.

 Burning: When a match burns, the wood changes into a black substance called carbon.
 Cooking: Frying an egg changes its structure forever.

Diagram: Irreversible Change

An image of a new match next to a burnt match, with a "Crossed-out back arrow" to show it
cannot be reversed.

Dissolving and Solutions

Some substances can dissolve in liquids to form a solution.

 Solute: The substance that dissolves (e.g., salt).

 Solvent: The substance in which the solute dissolves (e.g., water).
 Solution: The mixture of solute and solvent. It has a uniform appearance (looks the
same throughout).

Diagram: Particles in a Solution

11
A beaker showing solvent particles (large circles) and solute particles (small dots) spread evenly
between them.

Making Solids Dissolve Faster:

The rate (speed) of dissolving can be increased by:

1. Stirring: Causes particles to spread out into the spaces between solvent particles more
quickly.
2. Increasing Temperature: Heat adds energy to particles, causing them to move faster
and spread out more easily.

Boiling vs Evaporation
Both processes involve a liquid changing into a gas, but they are different:

FEATUR
EVAPORATIONBOILING
E
Happens only at Happens througho
Location
the surface. ut the liquid.
Temperat Can occur at any
ure temperature.

Forces and Energy

Mass vs Weight
 Mass: The amount of "stuff" in an object. Measured in kilograms
(kg). Mass never changes.
 Weight: The force of gravity pulling on an object. Measured
in Newtons (N).

Gravity is different on different planets. On the Moon, you would have the
same mass but a lower weight because Moon's gravity is weaker.

Force Diagrams
Scientists use force diagrams to show the forces acting on an object. Each
arrow shows:

 Name: What type of force it is (written as a label).

 Size: Bigger arrow = stronger force.

12
  Direction: The arrow points the way the force pushes or pulls.

Common Forces to Know:

FORCE
DESCRIPTION
NAME
Gravity
Pulls objects DOWN towards Earth
(Weight)
Normal A surface pushing UP on an object
Force resting on it
Applied A push or pull from a person or
Force machine
Opposes movement between two
Friction
surfaces
Air Friction from air on a moving
Resistance object

Diagram: A Book on a Table

Draw a rectangle (book) on a flat line (table). Arrow pointing DOWN from
centre of book, labelled "Weight (Gravity)". Arrow pointing UP from centre of
book, same length, labelled "Normal Force". Write: "Forces are BALANCED -
book stays still."

Diagram: A Ball Being Pushed

Draw a circle (ball) on a flat surface. Arrow pointing DOWN labelled "Weight".
Arrow pointing UP (same size) labelled "Normal Force". Large arrow pointing
RIGHT labelled "Applied Force (Push)". Smaller arrow pointing LEFT labelled
"Friction". Write: "Forces are UNBALANCED - ball moves right."

Effects of Forces
Forces can cause objects to:

 Accelerate: Start moving or speed up (unbalanced force in direction

of motion).
 Decelerate: Slow down (unbalanced force opposite to motion).
 Change direction: A force applied from the side.
 Change shape: Stretch, squash, bend, or twist.

Balanced Forces
When forces are equal in size but opposite in direction. The object stays still
OR keeps moving at the same speed.
Unbalanced Forces

13
When one force is larger than the other. The object will accelerate,
decelerate, or change direction.
COMMON MISTAKE

Some pupils think that if an object is not moving, there are no forces acting
on it. This is wrong! A book on a table has gravity pulling it down AND the
table pushing it up. The forces are balanced, so the book stays still.

Worked-Example

Question: A car is moving at a steady speed on a straight road. Are the

forces acting on the car balanced or unbalanced? Explain your answer. [2
marks]

ANSWER

The forces are balanced [1]. If the car is moving at a steady speed (not
speeding up or slowing down), the forward force from the engine equals the
backward forces (friction and air resistance) [1].

Floating and Sinking

Whether an object floats or sinks depends on TWO things: its mass and
its shape.

The Forces Involved:

 Weight: Gravity pulls the object DOWN.

 Buoyant Force (Upthrust): The water pushes the object UP.

If the buoyant force equals the weight → the object floats.

If the weight is greater than the buoyant force → the object sinks.

How Shape Affects Floating:

A metal ship is very heavy, yet it floats! This is because of its shape.

THE ALUMINIUM FOIL EXPERIMENT

Take a flat piece of aluminium foil. It floats on water because it is spread out
- lots of its surface touches the water, so the buoyant force is large.

14
Now scrunch the same foil into a tight ball. It sinks! The mass has not
changed, but the shape has. The ball has less surface in contact with the
water, so the buoyant force is smaller.

Ships are designed with a wide, hollow shape so that lots of water pushes up
against the hull. This creates a large buoyant force that equals the ship's
weight.

Diagram: Floating and Sinking

Draw two images side by side. LEFT: A flat piece of foil floating on water
surface. Arrows: small "Weight" arrow pointing down, equal "Buoyant force"
arrow pointing up. Label: "Floats". RIGHT: A scrunched ball of foil sinking
below the water surface. Arrows: "Weight" arrow pointing down (longer),
smaller "Buoyant force" arrow pointing up. Label: "Sinks".

Worked-Example

Question: A student has a piece of modelling clay. When rolled into a ball, it
sinks. The student then shapes it into a boat shape and it floats. Explain why.
[3 marks]

ANSWER

The mass of the clay stays the same [1]. When shaped as a boat, more
surface area is in contact with the water [1]. This increases the buoyant force
until it equals the weight, so the clay floats [1].

Worked-Example

Question: Name TWO factors that affect whether an object floats or sinks.

ANSWER

1. Mass 2. Shape

Sound and Light

15
Reflection of Light
When light hits a shiny surface like a plane mirror (flat mirror), it bounces
off. This is called reflection.

Key Terms:

 Incident ray: The ray of light travelling TOWARDS the mirror.

 Reflected ray: The ray of light bouncing AWAY from the mirror.
 Normal: An imaginary line at 90° (right angle) to the mirror surface.

THE LAW OF REFLECTION

The angle of incidence (between incident ray and normal) equals

the angle of reflection (between reflected ray and normal).

Drag the light source (yellow dot) to change the angle of incidence.

In a plane mirror:

 The image appears the same size as the object.

 The image appears the same distance behind the mirror as the object
is in front.
 The image is laterally inverted (left and right are swapped).

Worked-Example - 2023 Oct/Nov Paper 1 Q3

Question: Safia investigates how light is reflected from two mirrors.

She draws a diagram to show the result of her investigation.
Look at the diagram showing a ray of light and two mirrors. [1 mark]

16
(a) The ray of light is reflected when it touches the bottom mirror.
Describe what happens when a ray of light is reflected. [1]

(b) Complete the sentences to show the number of reflections from each
mirror.
The top mirror has .............. reflections.
The bottom mirror has .............. reflections. [1]

(c) Safia wants to increase the total number of reflections.

Describe what Safia does to increase the total number of reflections. [1]

ANSWER

(a) The ray of light changes direction.

(b) TWO (2)
(c) THREE (3).

Worked Example - June-2024-Paper-2

Question: Lily investigates what happens to a ray of light when it touches a

mirror.

17
(a)Write down the name of the process Lily investigates.
........................................................ [1]

(b)Lily changes the size of angle A and then measures angles A, B and C.
She writes her results in a table. [1]

ANGLE A ANGLE B ANGLE C

IN IN IN
DEGREES DEGREES DEGREES
10 160 10
20 140 20
30 120 30
40 100 40
50 80 50

Describe two things that happen as angle A increases in size.

1: ..............................................................
2: ..............................................................
[2 marks]

ANSWER

18
(a): reflection
(b):

1: angle B decreases in size

2: angle C increases in size
Or angle C is the same size as angle A

Refraction of Light
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent
material into another. This happens because light travels at different
speeds in different materials.

Key Terms:

 Incident ray: The ray of light travelling TOWARD the boundary

between two materials.
 Refracted ray: The ray that has crossed the boundary and changed
direction.
 Normal: An imaginary line at 90° to the boundary at the point where
light enters.
 Angle of incidence (θᵢ): The angle between the incident ray and the
normal.
 Angle of refraction (θᵣ): The angle between the refracted ray and
the normal (inside the new material).

The Rule of Refraction

Air → Water or Glass: Light slows down and bends toward the normal (θᵣ
< θᵢ).
Water or Glass → Air: Light speeds up and bends away from the normal
(θᵣ > θᵢ).
Drag the light source (yellow dot) to change the angle of incidence.

Real-World Examples of Refraction:

WHAT YOU
EXAMPLE WHY
SEE
Light bends as it
The straw leaves the water, so
Straw in a
looks bent or our eye traces it
glass of
broken at the back along a straight
water
water surface line to the wrong
position
Swimming The pool Light from the
pool floor looks bottom bends away

19
 WHAT YOU
EXAMPLE WHY
SEE
from normal
shallower
entering air, making
than it really
the floor appear
is
closer
Glass The curved glass
Objects look
lenses refracts light to
clearer or
(spectacle focus it correctly
magnified
s) onto the eye
Worked Example - October-2024-Paper-1-Question-3

Question:
Ahmed uses a semi-circular glass block to investigate refraction.
Look at the diagram.

Ahmed changes the size of angle A by moving the flashlight.

He writes down the size of angle B.
Look at his results.

ANGLE A IN ° ANGLE B IN °
0 0

20
ANGLE A IN ° ANGLE B IN °
10 7.0
20 13.5
30 19.0
40 25.0

(a) Plot a line graph of the results on the grid.

(b) Draw a straight line through the points. [1]

(c) Ahmed uses 25° for angle A.

Write down the size of angle B................................................... ° [1]

21
(d) Ahmed removes the semi-circular glass block.

Complete the sentence to explain what happens to the ray of light.

There is no change in the medium so the ray of light

does not ..........................................................[1]

ANSWER

(a) [1]
Plot each pair of values from the table as a cross (×) on the grid. For
example, when angle A = 10°, draw a cross at angle B = 7.0°. Do this for all
five pairs of values. Make sure each cross is in the right place - it should be
within one small square of the correct position.

[Link].025.030.001020304050angle A in °angle B in °

(b) [1]
Use a ruler to draw one straight line that passes through or close to all the
plotted points. The line must begin at 0 on the y-axis (the origin) and
continue to at least angle A = 40°. The line does not have to pass through
every single point exactly - try to have roughly equal numbers of points on
each side of the line.

[Link].025.030.001020304050angle A in °angle B in °

(c) [1] - Answer: 16°

Find 25° on the angle A axis (the x-axis at the bottom). Go straight up until
you reach your line from part (b), then read across to the angle B axis. Any
answer between 15.5° and 16.5° is correct, as long as it matches your line.

(d) [1] - does not bend / refract / change direction

Without the glass block, the ray of light travels through just one material (air)
the whole time. Because it never crosses a boundary between two different
materials, there is nothing to cause it to bend - so it travels in a straight line
without changing direction.

DON'T CONFUSE REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Reflection - light bounces back from a surface; it stays in the same

material.
Refraction - light passes through a boundary into a new material and
changes direction.

22
Electricity and Magnetism
Circuit Symbols
Scientists use standard symbols to draw circuits.

23
  Cell: Two lines (one long, one short).
 Switch: Can be open or closed.
 Lamp/Bulb: A circle with an 'X' inside.
 Wire: Straight lines.
 Buzzer: Semi-circle on two legs.

Series Circuit
A series circuit is one where the electric current has only one path to follow
- one single loop. All components are connected one after another in the
same loop.

 One path: The current flows through every component in turn.

 Dimmer bulbs: If you add more bulbs, they all get dimmer because
they share the energy from the battery.
 One fails, all fail: If one lamp stops working, the circuit is broken
and none of the other lamps will light up.
 Real-life example: Strings of festival/party lights are often wired in
series - when one bulb blows, the whole string goes out and you have
to check every single bulb to find the faulty one.

Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit gives each component its own separate loop back to the
battery. This means the current has multiple paths to choose from.

24
  Multiple paths: Each lamp (or component) has its own branch of the
circuit.
 Full voltage: Each pathway in a parallel circuit receives the full
circuit voltage, so bulbs stay bright even when more are added.
 One fails, rest stay on: If one lamp burns out, the other lamps
remain alight because their loops are still complete.
 Real-life example: The lights in your home are wired in parallel -
switching off one light does not turn off all the others.

Checkpoint-Style - 2023 Oct/Nov Paper 1 Question 7

25
Question: Both circuits have identical components.
Complete the sentences
The parallel circuit is electrical circuit............
The circuit with the brightest lamps is electrical circuit............ [1 mark]

ANSWER

B
B [1]

Planet Earth
Types of Rocks
Rocks can be classified into three main types based on how they formed.

ROCK HOW IT IDENTIFYING

EXAMPLES
TYPE FORMS FEATURES
Formed when hot
Contains crystals. Granite,
magma or lava
Igneous No layers. No fossils. basalt,
cools and
Often hard. obsidian
solidifies
Sediment Formed from Visible layers. May Limestone,
ary layers of contain fossils. sandstone,
sediment (sand, Often crumbly or chalk

26
ROCK HOW IT IDENTIFYING
EXAMPLES
TYPE FORMS FEATURES
mud, dead
organisms)
grainy.
pressed together
over time
Formed when
Bands or
existing rocks
stripes of different Marble,
Metamorp are changed by
minerals. Very hard. slate,
hic heat and
No fossils quartzite
pressure deep
(destroyed by heat).
underground
MEMORY TIP

Igneous = "Ignite" (fire) - formed from hot molten rock.

Sedimentary = "Sediment" (bits that settle) - formed from layers.
Metamorphic = "Metamorphosis" (change) - changed by heat and pressure.

Worked-Example

Question: A rock has visible layers and contains a fossil of a shell. What
type of rock is it? Explain your answer. [2 marks]

ANSWER

Sedimentary rock [1]. Sedimentary rocks form from layers of sediment and
can contain fossils because they form at low temperatures [1].

Fossil Formation:

1. Animal dies and is buried in sediment.

2. Soft parts rot away.
3. Minerals replace the bone.
4. Rock is worn away years later to reveal the fossil.

Soil Types and Classification

Soils can be classified based on the size of their particles and what they
contain.

Soil Components:

 Sand: Large particles. Water drains through quickly.

 Silt: Medium-sized particles. Holds some water.

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  Clay: Very tiny particles. Holds lots of water but can become
waterlogged.
 Organic matter (Humus): Dead plant and animal material. Contains
nutrients for plants.

SOIL MAIN
PROPERTIES
TYPE CONTENT
Drains quickly, doesn't
Sandy
Mostly sand hold nutrients well,
soil
warms up fast
Holds water well, can
Clay
Mostly clay become waterlogged,
soil
slow to warm
Mix of sand, Best balance: holds
Loam
silt, clay, and water AND drains well,
soil
humus rich in nutrients

How Soil Composition Affects Plant Growth

The composition of soil can change over time, which affects how well plants
grow.

How Soil Supports Plant Growth:

 Plants need water - soil must hold enough water for roots to absorb.
 Plants need nutrients - these come from organic matter (humus) in
the soil.
 Plants need air - roots need oxygen, so soil shouldn't be too
compacted.

How Soil Composition Can Change:

CHANGE EFFECT ON PLANTS

Adding
Supports growth: Adds
compost
nutrients, improves water
(organic
retention
matter)
Soil becomes Hinders growth: Less air for
compacted roots, water cannot drain
Heavy rain
Hinders growth: Nutrients
washes away
are lost
topsoil
Drought dries Hinders growth: Not
out soil enough water for roots

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Worked-Example

Question: A farmer adds compost to their field each year. Explain how this
helps plants grow. [2 marks]

ANSWER

Compost adds organic matter / humus to the soil [1]. This provides nutrients
for the plants / improves the soil's ability to hold water [1].

Earth in Space
The Solar System
Our Solar System contains the Sun, eight planets, and many moons. All the
planets orbit (travel around) the Sun.

Order of the Planets from the Sun:

MEMORY TRICK

My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nachos

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PLANE KEY FEATURES /
T CHARACTERISTICS
Mercur Closest to the Sun, very hot during the
y day.
Hottest planet (thick atmosphere traps
Venus
heat).
Earth Our home, has liquid water and life.
Mars The "Red Planet".
Jupiter Largest planet, has many moons.
Saturn Famous for its rings.
Uranus Tilted on its side.
Neptun
Furthest from the Sun, very cold.
e

Solar System Model

Instructions: Click the Sun or any planet to learn about it. Use the controls below to pause or change
speed. All orbits move anticlockwise (as viewed from above the Solar System).
⏸ PauseSpeed:0.5×1×3×10×Labels: ON⤢ Zoom InSpeeds are compressed for visualisation

Movement in the Solar System:

 All planets orbit the Sun.

 Planets closer to the Sun orbit faster than planets further away.
 The Moon orbits the Earth (takes about 28 days - one lunar month).
 Earth takes 1 year (365 days) to orbit the Sun.

Satellite
Any object that orbits another object. The Moon is a natural satellite of Earth.
Planets are natural satellites of the Sun.
IMPORTANT

The Earth does NOT stay still! All objects in the Solar System are constantly
moving. Planets orbit the Sun, and moons orbit their planets.

Worked-Example - November-2025-paper-1-question-13

Question: The diagram shows part of the Solar System.

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(a)Name planet A and planet B.
planet A ........................................................
planet B ........................................................ [1]

(b) Jupiter has many moons

Draw the orbit of one of the moons of Jupiter on the diagram. [1]

ANSWER
(a):
planet A: Venus
planet B: Mars
(b):
Draw an orbit(circle or ellipse) around Jupiter

Phases of the Moon

The Moon does not produce its own light - it reflects light from the Sun. As
the Moon orbits Earth, we see different amounts of the sunlit side. This
creates the phases of the Moon.

The Monthly Cycle (approximately 28 days):

PHASE WHAT WE SEE

New MoonMoon is between Earth and Sun -
we see the dark side (no light
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PHASE WHAT WE SEE
visible)
Waxing A small sliver of light appears on
Crescent the RIGHT side (getting bigger)
First
Right HALF of the Moon is lit
Quarter
Waxing More than half is lit, still getting
Gibbous bigger
Earth is between Moon and Sun -
Full Moon
we see the whole lit face
Waning
More than half is lit, getting smaller
Gibbous
Last
Left HALF of the Moon is lit
Quarter
Waning A small sliver of light on the LEFT
Crescent side (getting smaller)
Waxing
Getting bigger - more of the Moon is lit each night.
Waning
Getting smaller - less of the Moon is lit each night.
REMEMBER

The Moon itself does NOT change shape! We just see different portions of the
sunlit half as it moves around Earth.

Worked Example

Question: Class 6 make a model to show the phases of the Moon. The
teacher holds the model and Angelique puts her head inside the model.

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Angelique looks at the Moon in the first quarter.

(a) Which part of the Solar System is Angelique in this model? [1]

(b) What does Angelique do to see the other Moons in this model? [1]

(c) Angelique sees the Moon in the first quarter.

Complete the diagram to show how Angelique sees the Moon in the last
quarter. [1]

ANSWER

(a) [1] - Earth

In the model, Angelique's head represents the Earth. She is the observer
standing at the centre, looking outwards at the Moon - just like someone
standing on the Earth and looking up at the sky.

(b) [1] - The teacher spins / turns / rotates the model

The Moon balls are fixed around Angelique - she stays still. To see each
phase, the teacher rotates the whole model around her. This is like the Moon
orbiting the Earth: the Earth (Angelique) stays in place while the Moon
moves around it.
⚠ Do not write "turns her head" or "moves her eyes" - those answers are ignored. Also do
not write "orbit".

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(c) [1] - The last quarter Moon is the mirror image of the first quarter.
The left half is lit (white) and the right half is shaded.

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