CHAPTER 2
METHODS OF ENQUIRY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Goals Of Psychology In Research:
1. Description
• In a psychological study, we attempt to describe behaviour or a phenomenon as
accurately as
possible.
• This helps in distinguishing a particularly behaviour from behaviours.
• Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions.
• The description requires recording of a particular which helps in its proper
understanding.
2. Prediction
• The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour.
• If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know
the
• relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviour, events, or
phenomena.
• You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur
within a certain margin of error.
• Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of person observed.
3. Explanation
• The third goal of psychological enquiry is to known the cause factors or determinants
of behaviour.
• Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour
occur.
• Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur?
4. Control
• If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that
behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
• Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or
enhancing it.
5. Application
• The final goal of a scientific theory enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives
of people.
• Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings.
• Because of these efforts the quality of life people is a major concern of psychologists.
• Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories of constructs, which leads
to further research
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
1. Conceptualising a problem
• The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for
study.
• Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems
for the study.
• This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal
experiences.
• After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative
answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis.
2. Collecting Data
• The second step in scientific research is to collect data.
• Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.
• Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the
participants in the study.
• The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as
observation method, experimental method, correlation method, case study, etc.
3. Drawing Conclusion
• The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to
understand what the data mean.
• This can be achieved through graphical representations and by the use of different
statistical methods.
• The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.
4. Revising Research Conclusions
• To see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis.
• If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed.
• If not, s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis theory and again test it based
on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers.
• Thus, research is a continuous process.
Nature of Psychological Data
• Psychologist collects a variety of information from different sources employing diverse
methods.
• The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individual’s covert or
overt behaviour, their subjective experience, and mental processes.
• Data from an important input in psychological enquiry.
• They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify
falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc.
• It should be understand that data are not independent entitles.
• Data are not the independent of the physical or social context, the person involved, and
the time when the behaviour occurs.
• Data does not in itself speak about reality.
• Inferences have to be made from data.
• A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing in its proper context.
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA:
1. Demographic Information.
This information generally includes personal information.
2. Physical Information
This category includes information about ecological conditions
3. Physiological Data
In some studies physical, physiological and psychological.
4. Psychological Information
Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as intelligence,
personality, interest consciousness, subjective experiences etc.
METHODS:
1. OBSERVATION METHOD:
• Observation is a very powerful tool of psychology enquiry.
• It is an effective method of describing behaviour.
• A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation.
Process of observation:
Selection
• Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter.
• Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation.
Recording
• While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means,
such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking
notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols,
photographs, video recording, etc
Analysis of Data
• After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have
recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.
• It is an important to know that making good observations is a skill.
• A good observer know what s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation
needs to be made, in what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods
will be used to analyse the observed behaviour.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Naturalistic Controlled Observation
When an observation is done in natural or Controlled observation is a research method
real-life settings it is called naturalistic where researchers watch participants in a
observation. In this case the observer makes contained environment, such as a laboratory
no effort to control or manipulate the
situation for making an observation.
This type of observation is conducted in
hospitals, homes, schools, day care centres,
etc
Non Participant Participant Observation
The type of observation in which researcher In participant observation, the observer
is involved is called non participant becomes a part of the group of people being
observation. observed.
The danger in this type of setup is that the In participant observation, the observer takes
very fact that someone is sitting and some time to establish a rapport with the
observing may bring a change in the group so that they start accepting her/him as
behaviour of students and the teacher. one of the group members.
The degree of involvement of the observer
with the group being observed would vary
depending upon the focus of the study
The advantage
• The observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their
behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
• The observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the
observer’s bias.
• Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.
• The observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the
behaviour at the time of observation itself.
2. EXPERIMENT METHOD:
• Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause – effect relationship between two
sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.
• In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour
that changes because of manipulation.
The concept of variable
• In the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal relationship between
two variables.
• VARIABLE: Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values and
can be measured is a variable. An object by itself is not a variable.
TYPES OF VARIABLES IN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: Independent and dependent
variable
• Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied
by the researcher in the experiment
• It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note
in the study.
• The independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room.
• The variable on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent
variable.
• Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain.
• It is expected that change in the dependent variables will ensue from changes in the
dependent variable.
Independent and dependent variables are interdependent.
Neither of them can be defined without the other.
TYPES OF GROUPS IN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: Experimental and Control Groups
• An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent
variable manipulation.
• The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental
group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it.
In an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant
for both experimental and control groups. Those variables can influence the dependent variable
or the results of the research, hence needs to be controlled. Exposure to many conditions may
result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects which may influence the results of the study
and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.
TECHNIQUES OR METHODS THAT CAN BE USED TO MINIMISE EXTERENOUS
VARIABLES:
1. Elimination: The best way to handle this problem is to eliminate them from the
experimental setting. For example, the experiment may be conducted in a sound-proof
and airconditioned room to eliminate the effect of noise and temperature
2. For controlling organismic (e.g., fear, motivation) and background variables (such as
rural/urban, caste, socioeconomic status) matching is also used. In this procedure the
relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held constant by taking matched
pairs across conditions of the experiment.
3. Counter-balancing technique is used to minimise the sequence effect. Suppose there
are two tasks to be given in an experiment. Rather than giving the two tasks in the same
sequence the experimenter may interchange the order of the tasks. Thus, half of the
group may receive the tasks in the order of A and B while the other half in order of B
and A or the same individual may be given the task in A, B, B, A order.
4. Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any potential
systematic differences between groups.
Strength and limitation
Strength: One can study the cause – effect relationship between two or more variables.
Limitation: Experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this
sense, they only stimulate situations that exist in the outside world. They are frequently
criticised for this reason.
• The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real situations.
They have low external validity.
• Not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
• It is difficult to know or control all the relevant variables
3. Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments
FIELD EXPERIMENT QUASI EXPERIEMENT
If a researcher wants to have high This type of experiment is used when
generalisability or to conduct studies which variables cannot be manipulated in the
are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he laboratory settings.
may go to the field or the natural setting Eg: study the effect of an earthquake on
where the particular phenomenon actually children who lost their parents, you cannot
exists. In other words, s/he may conduct a create this condition artificially in the
field experiment. laboratory.
For example, a researcher may want to know In quasi experimentation the independent
which method would lead to better learning variable is selected rather than varied or
among students—lecture or demonstration manipulated by the experimenter.
method. For this, a researcher may prefer to A quasi experimentation attempts to
conduct an experiment in the school manipulate an independent variable in a
natural setting using naturally occurring
groups to form experimental and control
groups
4. CORRELATIONAL METHOD:
• The correlational method involves looking for relationships between variables. Eg:
studying the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety.
• The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented
by a number, known as correlation coefficient. Its value can range from +1.0 through
0.0 to -1.0.
TYPES OF CORRELATION:
i. Positive correlation: It indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the
value of the other variable (Y) will also increase. Similarly, when variable X decreases,
a decrease in Y too take place.
ii. Negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increase, the value
of the other (Y) decreases.
iii. ZERO CORRELATION (No relation): It is also possible that sometimes no
correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called zero correlation. This
indicates that no significant relationship exists between two variables or the two
variables are unrelated.
5. SURVEY RESEARCH:
• Survey research studies the opinions, attitudes, and social facts.
• Their main concern initially was to find out the existing reality or baseline.
• The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information: PERSONAL
INTERVIEWS, QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY AND TELEPFONE SURVEY.
Personal interviews:
• The interview method is one of the most frequently uses methods for obtaining information
from people. It is used in diverse kinds of situations.
• An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and
attitudes, and reasons for particular behaviour, etc. from the respondents.
• It is generally conducted face – to – face.
Types of interviews:
Interviews can be Structured or standardised and unstructured or non – standardised This
distinction is based upon the type of preparation we make before conducting the interview. As
we have to ask questions during the interview, it is required that we prepare a list of questions
before hand. The list is called an interview schedule.
• A structured interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly
in a particular sequence. The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in the
wordings of the questions or the order in which they are to be asked.
• The responses to these questions are also, in some cases, specified in advance. These
are called close ended questions.
• In unstructured interview the interviewer has the flexibility to take decisions about
the questions to be asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence in which
questions are to be asked.
• Responses are not specified in such type of interview; the respondent can answer the
questions in the way s/he chooses to. Such questions are called open ended questions.
An interview may have the following combinations of participants in an interview situations:
• Individual to individual: it is a situation where one interviewer interviews another
person.
• Individual to group: in this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of persons.
One variant of it is called a Focus Group Discussion (FGD).
• Group to individual: it is a situation where one group of interviewers interview one
person.
• Group to group: it is a situation where one group of interviewers interview another
group of interviewees.
GOOD INTERVIEWER: Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training.
• A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease and get the optimal
answer.
• S/he remains sensitive to the way a person responds and, if needed, probes for more
information.
• If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try to get specific and
concrete answer.
• An interviewer can know whether the respondent understand the questions, and can
repeat or paraphrase questions.
Questionnaire Survey
• The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self report
method of collecting information. It consists of predetermined set of questions. The
respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on the paper rather than
respondent verbally to the interviewer.
• Questionnaires can be distributed to a group of person at a time who right down their
answers to the questions and return to the researcher or can be sent through mail.
• With open ended questions, the respondent is free to write whatever answers/he
considers appropriate.
• In the closed ended type, the questions and their probable answers are given and the
respondent is required to select the correct answer.
Telephone Survey
• Surveys are also conducted through telephone, and now-a-days you must have seen
programmes asking, you to send your views through mobile phone’s SMS.
• The telephone survey helps in reducing time.
• The respondents do not know the interviewer; the technique is fraught with
uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial answers by the respondents.
• This will lead to very biased kinds of results.
Advantage and Disadvantage of survey method
• The researcher needs to exercise caution in selecting a particular method.
• Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons.
• Surveys can be conducted quickly; public opinions on new issues can be obtained
almost as soon as the issue arise.
• People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may do not
want to let the
• researcher know what they really believe about a particular issue.
• People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL TETSING:
• Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual's mental
and/or. behavioural characteristics.
• Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment of various human
characteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, interest, attitudes, values,
educational achievement, etc.
• These tests are used for various purposes, such as personnel selection, placement,
training, guidance, diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts including educational
institutions, guidance clinics, industries, defence establishments, and so forth.
• DEFINATION: A psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument
which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental or
behavioural characteristics.
• Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researcher administer a psychological
test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the
same values for each person in the group. In order for a psychological test to become
an objective measure, it is essential that items should be worded in such a manner that
they communicate the same meaning to different readers.
• The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps. It involves
detailed analysis of items, and estimating reliability, validity, and norms of the whole
test. (Read reliability validity and norms from book)
TYPES OF TEST:
1. Depending upon the language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests.
2. Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into
individual or group tests. An individual test is administered by the researcher to one
person at a time, while group tests can be administered to large number of persons at
the same time.
3. Speed and power test
• In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all
the items. Power test assesses the underlying ability of the individuals by allowing them
sufficient time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.
• In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an increasing order of difficulty. The
test user or the decision maker should not rely on any single test.
7. Case Study
• In this method, the emphasis is given on indepth study of a particular case. Researcher
focus on cases which can provide critical information or new learning on less
understood phenomena.
• The cases that we select for study are unique and therefore, are rich in information.
• Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in
a person’s life.
• A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human
development.
• Examples: Freud’s insight that led to the development of psychoanalytic theory
emerged from his observations and showed that meticulous records must be maintained
on individual cases.
• Piaget developed his theory of cognitive development on the basis of observations of
his three children.
• Case studies provide detailed in – depth depictions of people’s lives.
• The problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging. It is recommended
that the information should be collected using multiple strategies from different sources
of information by a number of investigators.
• Careful planning of data collection is also very necessary.
• The process of data collection the researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence
for linking various data sources having bearing on the research questions.
• The researcher should not depend upon only one method.
• A combination of two or more methods should be used to get the real picture.
• If the methods converge, i.e. they give the same results, one can certainly
is more confident.
ANALYSIS OF DATA: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITAIVE DATA
Limitations Of Psychological Enquiry:
1. Lack of True Zero Point
• Psychological measurements do not have a true zero point.
• The problem in such type of assessment is that the difference between first and second rank
holders may not be the same as is the difference between the second and third rank holders.
• This also illustrates the relative nature of the psychological measurement.
2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools
• Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient feature of a particular context.
• Tests need to be properly modified and adapted keeping in view the characteristics of the
context in which they are to be used.
3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data
• Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective since they involved interpretation on
the part of the researcher as well as the person providing data.
• The interpretations may vary from one individual to the other.
• It is, therefore, often suggested that in case of qualitative studies, the field work should be
done by more than one investigator, who at the end of the day should discuss their
observations and arrive at an agreement before finally giving it a meaning.
• One is better off, if the respondents too are involved in such meaning – making process.
Ethical Issues
1. Voluntary Participation
• This principle states that the person on whom you want to conduct the study should have
the choice to device whether to participate or not to participate in the study.
• The participants should have the freedom to decide about their participation without any
coercion excessive inducement, and the freedom to withdraw from the research without
penalty, once it has begun.
2. Informed Consent
• It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them
during the study.
• The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must receive this
information before data from them are collected, so that they can make an informed
decision about participation in the study.
• They may at times be required to give some private information, which is generally not
shared with others.
• It is important that the participants are explained the nature of the study before its actual
commencement.
3. Debriefing
• Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete
their understanding of research.
• This is particularly important if deception has been used in the study.
• Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state
as when they entered. It should offer reassurance to the participants may have felt as a result
of being deceived in the course of the study.
4. Sharing the Result of the Study
• In psychology research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back
to our place of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions.
• It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to participants and share the results of the study
with them.
5. Confidentiality of Data Source
• The participants in a study have the right to privacy.
• The researcher must have safeguarded their privacy by keeping the information provided
by them in strict confidence.
• The information should only be used for research purposes and, in no circumstances; it
should be passed on to other interested parties.
• The most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of participants is not to record their
identities. This is, however, not possible in certain kinds of [Link] such cases, code
numbers are given on the data sheet, and the names with the codes are kept separately. The
identification list should be destroyed as soon as the research is over