Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals

Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

Endocrine System
Unit VII Microscopic structure of the Endocrine
Summary: System

Sub-topics covered in the lecture Secretory cells are arranged as

●​ Cords
●​ Clumps
●​ Hollow follicles
Overview of the Endocrine System
Note: all cells are in direct contact with blood
capillaries because hormones mainly travel
●​ Endocrine organs are small and
through the bloodstream
unimpressive
●​ Anatomical continuity does not exist among
the endocrine organs Hormones
○​ They are found all over the body
●​ pancreas belongs to both endocrine and Hormone
exocrine system ●​ From the Greek word hormon
○​ “To excite or set into motion”
Functions of the Endocrine System ●​ are chemical messengers secreted by
endocrine glands, transported in the
circulation to target cells, where they
●​ Produces hormones that control and
regulate metabolic processes
integrate the following body processes of
●​ Can elicit specific and dramatic effects at
cellular physiology and behavior:
very low concentrations (this ability is
○​ Reproduction
specifically termed potency or high potency)
○​ Growth and development
○​ Mobilization of body defenses
Target cell: houses the specific receptor for a
○​ Maintenance of electrolyte, water,
particular hormone
and nutrient balance of the blood
●​ Note: target cells are cells that have
○​ Cellular metabolism
receptors that are a perfect fit for a specific
hormone; different hormones have
Components of the Endocrine System different target cells

A. Endocrine organs Source

●​ Adenohypophysis ●​ endocrine organ that produce hormones
●​ Thyroid gland
●​ Adrenal gland Functions of Hormones

B. Islands of endocrine tissue in exocrine glands

●​ Regulation of:
●​ Islets of Langerhans
○​ Metabolism of carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids
D. isolated endocrine cells
○​ Mineral and salt water balance in the
●​ Cells with Diffuse Neuroendocrine System
body fluids
(DNES) functions in the mucosa of the
○​ Growth
digestive tract
○​ Sex-related differences in body
shape and sexual function
Origin of the Endocrine System ○​ Behavior, temperament, and
emotions
Ductless gland
●​ Invaginations of epithelial surfaces (i.e. oral Types of Hormones
ectoderm or gut endoderm) eventually
pinch off, losing contact with the parent
1.​ Peptide hormones
epithelium
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

2.​ Steroid hormones

Two parts of the pituitary gland
1. Neurohypophysis
Peptide Hormones
●​ Posterior part of the pituitary gland
●​ Origin: floor of the diencephalon
●​ Proteins, glycoproteins, or short peptides ●​ Subdivisions:
●​ They bind to specific receptors on the ○​ Pars nervosa
target cell surface ○​ Infundibulum (neural stalk)
●​ They often stimulate production of ●​ Three major structural components:
intracellular second messengers, such as ○​ Axons of neurosecretory cells
cyclic AMP ○​ Fenestrated capillary plexus
○​ Pituicytes
Steroid Hormones
2. Adenohypophysis
●​ Anterior part of the pituitary gland
●​ Lipid soluble hormones
●​ Origin: oral ectoderm, specifically Rathke’s
●​ Can easily cross the target cell’s plasma
pouch, a constriction during embryonic
membranes and thus directly affect cell
development that is reduced into a small
function
fissure
●​ They bind to specific receptors found
●​ General structure:
in the nucleus
○​ cords of glandular epithelial cells
●​ The hormone-receptor complex binds to
that are separated by the numerous
acceptor proteins in the DNA leading to the
sinusoidal capillaries
ultimate production of desired proteins
○​ Not directly innervated by
●​ more permanent(?) alteration to target
hypothalamic nerves
organs
●​ Subdivisions:
○​ Pars distalis
Note: the higher the location of an organ in the
○​ Pars tuberalis
body, the higher the control it has to inferior
○​ Pars intermedia
organs
Neuroendocrine System

Overlapping systems that control and

coordinate the body’s cells, tissues, and
organs
●​ Nervous system
●​ Endocrine system

Pituitary gland
●​ Focal connection between the endocrine
and nervous systems
●​ Also referred to as the master gland
●​ Adeno- and neurohypophyses are both
controlled by a nearby part of the brain, the Figure 1. Microscopic view of the neuro- and
hypothalamus adenohypophysis

Hypophysis Blood Supply in the Pituitary Gland

●​ Also called the pituitary gland ●​ Derived from two groups of vessels that
●​ Weighs approximately 0.5 grams come from the internal carotid artery

Sella turcica Superior hypophyseal arteries

●​ The cavity of the sphenoid bone where the ●​ Supply median eminence and neural stalk
pituitary gland is located ●​ Form the primary capillary plexus
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

Pars distalis
Inferior hypophyseal arteries
●​ Supply for the neurohypophysis with a small
supply to the stalk ●​ Accounts for 75% of hypophyseal mass
●​ Have few fibroblasts
Primary Capillary Plexus ●​ Main framework: reticular fibers that
●​ Profusion of capillaries found in the upper support the cords of hormone-producing
infundibular stalk and lower median cells
eminence
●​ Extends into pars tuberalis Cell Types of Pars distalis
●​ Receives blood from the hypophyseal
arteries and drains into the hypophyseal
portal veins 1. Chromophobes
●​ Stain poorly with hematoxylin & eosin (H&E
Hypophyseal Portal Veins stain)
●​ Small veins and venules located mainly in ●​ Appear clear or white in tissue sections
the middle and lower infundibular stalk and ●​ Make up 50% of cells in the pars distalis
in portions of the pars tuberalis ○​ Undifferentiated non-secretory cells
●​ Receive blood from the primary capillary ○​ Cells with sparse granules
plexus and carry it directly to the secondary ○​ Follicular cells: most dominant
capillary plexus in the pars distalis chromophobes with some phagocytic
functions
Secondary Capillary Plexus
●​ These are capillaries between clumps and 2. Chromophils
cords of cells in the pars distalis ●​ Hormone secreting cells of the
●​ Receives venous blood directly from the adenohypophysis
hypophyseal portal veins and arterial blood ●​ Stain intensely with H&E stain
from the anterior inferior hypophyseal ●​ Has abundant secretory granules and are
arteries usually larger than chromophobes
●​ Drained by the inferior hypophyseal veins ○​ Acidophils
into the internal jugulars ■​ Stain intensely with eosin
and orange G
■​ Smaller in size but have more
Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System and larger granules
○​ Basophils
Sites of Hormone Production ■​ Stains intensely with
1. Supraotic and Paraventricular nuclei hematoxylin and Periodic
●​ Peptide hormones are transported and acid–Schiff stain
accumulated in the ends of the axons at the ■​ Larger in size but have fewer
neurohypophysis and smaller granules

2. Dorsal, Medial, Ventral Medial, and Infundibular Note: In this context, granules are
Nuclei membrane-bound secretory vesicles inside the cell
●​ Peptide hormones are carried along axons that store hormones.
until they end in the median eminence until
released to the adenohypophysis Table 1. Secretory cells of the pars distalis and the
hormones they produce
3. Pars Distalis Cells Chromophils Hormones
●​ Peptides and glycoproteins are liberated
into the blood capillaries to the general Acidophils
circulation
Somatotrophic cells GH (somatotropin)

Parts of the Adenohypophysis Mammotropic cells prolactin

Basophils
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones:
Gonadotropic cells FSH, LH, ICSH
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Corticotropic cells ACTH
E. Corticotropic cell
A. Somatotropic cell ●​ Stain affinity: basophilic
●​ Stain affinity: acidophilic ●​ Hormone produced: corticotropin (ACTH)
●​ Hormone produced: somatotropin (growth ●​ Main physiologic activity: stimulates
hormone) secretion of adrenal cortex hormones
●​ Main physiologic activity: acts on growth of ●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones:
long bones via somatomedins synthesized in corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
the liver
●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones: Note (additional information):
somatotropin-releasing hormone (SRH) ●​ Somatomedins: insulin-like growth factors
●​ Hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones: ●​ Prolactin: hormone that stimulates
somatostatin lactation

B. Mammotropic cell Control of the Pars Distalis

●​ Stain affinity: acidophilic ●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones
●​ Hormone produced: prolactin ●​ Hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones
●​ Main physiologic activity: promotes milk ●​ Direct effect of hormones from stimulated
secretion endocrine cells (feedback mechanisms)
●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones:
prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) Hypothalamic Releasing and Inhibiting
●​ Hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones: Hormones
prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
●​ Small peptides synthesized in the neuron
C. Gonadotropic cell
cell bodies that diffuse through the
●​ Stain affinity: basophilic
adenohypophysis to stimulate or
●​ Hormone produced:
inhibit the release of hormones by
○​ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
acidophils and basophils
○​ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
●​ Main physiologic activity:
○​ FSH: promotes ovarian follicle Releasing Hormones
development and estrogen secretion
in women; stimulates A. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
spermatogenesis in men ●​ Structure: 41-amino acid peptide
○​ LH: promotes ovarian follicle ●​ Site of synthesis: paraventricular nucleus
maturation and progesterone ●​ Function: Stimulates corticotropic cells to
secretion in women; Leydig cell release ACTH
stimulation and androgen secretion
in men B. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
●​ Hypothalamic-releasing hormones: ●​ Structure: 10-amino acid peptide
○​ Gonadotropin releasing hormone ●​ Site of synthesis: preoptic and arcuate
(GnRH) nuclei
■​ Follicle-releasing hormone ●​ Function: stimulates the gonadotropic cells
(FRH) to release FSH and LH
■​ Lutein-releasing hormone
(LRH) C. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
●​ Structure: 3-amino acid peptide
D. Thyrotropic cell ●​ Function: stimulates the thyrotropic cells to
●​ Stain affinity: basophilic release TSH (thyrotropin)
●​ Hormone produced: thyrotropin (TSH)
●​ Main physiologic activity: stimulates thyroid
hormone synthesis, storage, and liberation Inhibiting Hormones
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

A. Somatostatin (GHIH - growth ●​ Acts on contraction of uterine smooth

hormone-inhibiting hormone) muscle and the myoepithelial cells of the
●​ Structure: 14-amino acid peptide mammary gland
●​ Site of synthesis: suprachiasmatic nuclei
●​ Function:
Axons of Neurosecretory Cells
○​ Inhibits somatotropic cells from
releasing growth hormone
○​ Inhibits the secretion of glucagon, ●​ These are unmyelinated axons whose soma
insulin, and other hormones are located mainly in the supraoptic and
associated with the GI tract paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus

B. Dopamine (PIH: prolactin-inhibiting hormone) Hypothalamo-hypophyseal Tract

●​ Site of synthesis: arcuate nuclei ●​ Term for axons passing from the supraoptic
●​ Function: inhibits mammotropic cells from and paraventricular nuclei to the pars
releasing prolactin nervosa

Herring bodies
Pars tuberalis ●​ Neurosecretory granules within
neurosecretory cells that exhibit large
●​ Funnel-shaped region surrounding the granule-filled dilations
infundibulum of neurohypophysis
●​ Same histology as pars distalis but contains Parts of Herring Bodies
mostly gonadotropes (FSH and LH) A. Neurohypophyseal hormones in granules
●​ They contain many capillaries of the ●​ Oxytocin
primary capillary plexus of the hypophyseal ○​ Structure: 9-amino acid peptide
portal system ○​ Site of synthesis: cell of the
paraventricular nucleus
○​ Function: stimulates MLK ejection
Pars intermedia
by the mammary glands and
stimulates contraction of uterine
●​ Band or wedge of adenohypophysis between muscle during copulation and
the pars distalis and pars nervosa childbirth
●​ Rathke’s cysts ●​ Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin)
○​ Small, irregular colloid-containing ○​ Structure: 9-amino acid peptide
cavities lined with cuboidal ○​ Site of synthesis: supraoptic nucleus
epithelium ○​ Function: stimulates water
○​ Considered remnants of the Rathke’s reabsorption by the collecting
pouch tubules and contraction of the
○​ Contains scattered clumps and cords vascular smooth muscle
of basophilic cells or melanotrophs
(secrete β-MSH) B. Neurophysin
●​ Binding protein that complexes with
Parts of the Neurohypophysis neurohypophyseal hormones

C. ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Hormones released by Pars Nervosa ●​ Provides energy for hormone packaging and
release
A. Vasopressin / antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
●​ Increases water permeability of kidney Fenestrated Capillary Plexus
collecting ducts
●​ Promotes vascular smooth muscle ●​ Capillaries that surround the axon terminals
contraction in the pars nervosa
●​ Pick up the neurosecretory products and
B. Oxytocin convey them to the general circulation
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

Note: fenestrated means “having pores or Note: Mineralocorticoids are steroid hormones,
windows” primarily aldosterone, produced by the adrenal
cortex to regulate electrolyte and water balance
Pituicytes
B. Zona fasciculata
●​ Location: middle layer of polyhedral cells
●​ Highly branched glial cells whose processes arranged in straight cords, one or two cell
surround and support the unmyelinated thicks, and with capillaries between them
axons ●​ Spongiocytes: specialized parenchymal cells
●​ Make up 25% of neurohypophyseal found in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal
parenchyma cortex that appear spongy or vacuolated in
histological sections
Adrenal Glands ●​ Function: represents the reserve zone to be
called into action to produce glucocorticoids
and some androgens
●​ Also called suprarenal glands ○​ Glucocorticoids: steroid hormones
●​ These are paired organs that lie near the that regulate immune responses
superior poles of the kidneys ■​ Eg. cortisol and
●​ Flattened structures with a half-moon shape corticosterone
●​ Weighs about 8 grams ○​ Androgens: steroid hormones
●​ Covered by a capsule (dense connective essential for reproductive health
tissue) ■​ Eg. dihydroepiandrosterone
●​ embedded in adipose tissue and androstenedione
●​ Factors acting on the gland: corticotropin
Components of the Adrenal Glands
C. Zone reticularis
●​ Location: innermost layer of cells disposed
●​ Adrenal cortex
in irregular cords that form an
●​ Adrenal medulla
anastomosing network
●​ Cell components: large and numerous
A. Adrenal cortex lipofuscin pigment granules
●​ Cell shapes: irregularly-shaped with
●​ Origin: mesoderm pyknotic nuclei
●​ Three layers (not usually sharply defined in ●​ Function: produce most of the
humans): glucocorticoids and adrenal androgens
○​ Zona glomerulosa (15%) ●​ Factors acting on the gland: corticotropin
○​ Zona fasiculata (65%)
○​ Zona reticularis (7%) Note: anastomosing means connecting,
interlacing, or joining together of branching
●​ Adrenal cortex cells do not store but
systems
synthesize and secrete steroid hormones
only upon demand
Cortical Hormones
A. Mineralocorticoids
A. Zona glomerulosa
●​ Aldosterone: controls water and electrolyte
●​ Location: beneath the capsule
balance mainly by stimulating sodium
●​ Structure: columnar or pyramidal cells
absorption by the distal renal tubules
arranged in closely packed, rounded, or
●​ Site of synthesis: zona glomerulosa
arched clusters (glomeruli) surrounded by
capillaries ●​ Stimulators of synthesis: angiotensin II and
ACTH
●​ Function: produce mineralocorticoids
●​ Factors acting on the gland: angiotensin and
B. Glucocorticoids
corticotropin (ACTH)
●​ Types:
○​ Eg. aldosterone
○​ Cortisol: has bad effect upon a week
longer of intake because it
suppresses the immune system
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

○​ Corticosterone ●​ Addison’s disease: causes low levels of

●​ Site of synthesis: glucose, sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate
○​ Zona reticularies in response to and high levels of serum potassium
ACTH ○​ Symptoms:
○​ Zona fasciculata in response to ■​ Weakness
prolonged stimulation ■​ Nausea
●​ Functions: ■​ Weight loss
○​ Control carbohydrate synthesis ■​ Hyperpigmentation caused
■​ Stimulating carbohydrate by elevated ACTH
synthesis in the liver ●​ ACTH promotes
■​ Catabolizing carbohydrates melanin production
in tissues to provide raw ●​ Hyposecretion of adrenal androgen: women
material for the liver lose pubic or axillary hair
○​ Suppress immune system by
decreasing number of circulating
B. adrenal medulla
lymphocytes and eosinophils

C. Adrenal Androgens ●​ Origin: neural crest cells

●​ Dehydroepiandrosterone
●​ Site of synthesis Major cell types:
○​ Zona reticularis in response to A. Chromaffin cells (pheochromocytes)
ACTH ●​ Stains best with osmium tetroxide, causing
○​ Zona fasciculata by prolonged the cells to appear black
stimulation ●​ Modified postganglionic sympathetic
●​ Function: neurons that have lost their axons and
○​ Has masculinizing and anabolic dendrites
effects similar to those of ●​ Contain large nuclei, which are abundant
testosterone but less potent electron-dense granules filled with
cathecolamins
Abnormal Functions of the Adrenal Cortex ○​ Eg. epinephrine and norepinephrine
A. Hypersecretion ■​ synergistic , meaning they
●​ Cushing’s syndrome: oversecretion of promote the activity of each
cortisol and often of androgens other, especially in muscles
○​ Symptoms:
■​ Truncal obesity: B. Ganglion cells
accumulation of visceral fat ●​ Exhibit typical morphologic characteristics
around the abdomen, of autonomic ganglion cells
stomach, and internal organs ●​ Has a large prominent nucleus and vesicular
■​ Round “moon face”: due to nuclei
fat deposit buildup ●​ Stain lightly and are always beside bundles
■​ High blood sugar of nerve fibers
■​ Diabetes mellitus
■​ Hirsutism: extra growth of Normal Function of Adrenal Medulla
dark or coarse hair in women
■​ Amenorrhea: absence of
●​ Produces two types of catecholamines in
menstruation
response to preganglionic sympathetic
■​ Acne
(fight-or-flight) stimulation (e.g. stress)
■​ Emotional lability: rapid,
○​ Epinephrine: vasodilation
uncontrollable mood swings
○​ Norepinephrine: vasoconstriction
●​ Conn’s syndrome: hypersecretion of
aldosterone causing sodium and water
A. Epinephrine
retention, increasing blood pressure
●​ Increases heart rate and dilates blood
vessels to the organs needed to combat or
B. Hyposecretion
escape stress, such as cardiac and skeletal
muscles
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

●​ Dilates the bronchioles and constricts ●​ Receive a double blood supply from arteries
vessels in organs that are not essential in of both the cortex and medulla
reacting to stress ●​ Converge to form several medullary veins

B. Norepinephrine D. Medullary Veins

●​ Constricts blood vessels in nonessential ●​ Converge to form a single large suprarenal
organs vein
●​ Increases peripheral resistance -> increases
blood pressure and blood flow to the heart, E. Suprarenal Vein
brain, and skeletal muscle ●​ Lying at the core of the medulla, this vein
drains into the renal vein or directly into the
inferior vena cava
Abnormal Function of Adrenal Medulla

SUMMARY
●​ Pheochromocytomas
BLOOD IN:
○​ Caused by hypersecreting
1.​ Main arteries
chromaffin cells 2.​ Subcapsular arterial plexus
○​ Sustained stress response even in 3.​ Medullary capillaries
the absence of stress
●​ Neuroblastomas and ganglioneuromas BLOOD OUT:
○​ Ganglion cell tumors are more 4.​ Medullary veins
5.​ Suprarenal vein
common but their clinical
manifestations vary
Islets of Langerhans
Adrenal Blood Supply
●​ Small nests of endocrine cells distributed
A. Main Arteries throughout the pancreas
●​ Penetrate the capsule separately ●​ Contains 4 major
●​ Types: peptide-hormone-secreting endocrine cell
○​ Superior suprarenal types
■​ From inferior phrenic artery ○​ A (alpha) cells
○​ Middle suprarenal ○​ B (beta) cells
■​ From aorta ○​ D (delta) cells
○​ Inferior suprarenal ○​ F cells (PP cells)
■​ From renal artery
Alpha Cells
Note: their branches anastomose to form a
subcapsular arterial plexus
Alpha cells
●​ Usually in periphery
B. Subcapsular arterial plexus
●​ ~20% of cells in islets of Langerhans
●​ Give rise to 3 groups of arteries
●​ Secrete glucagon in response to low blood
●​ Types:
glucose
○​ Arteries of the capsule
●​ Glucagon: acts on several tissues to make
○​ Arteries of the cortex
energy stored in glycogen and fat available
■​ Flows to the cortical
through glycogenolysis and lipolysis;
capillaries to the medullary
increases blood glucose content
capillaries
○​ Arteries of the medulla
■​ Pass through the cortex Beta Cells
without branching until they
reach the medulla -> Beta cells
medullary capillaries
●​ Usually in the central region
●​ ~70% of cells in islets of Langerhans
C. Medullary Capillaries
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

●​ Secrete insulin in response to high blood

glucose ●​ Location: neck, anterior to the larynx
●​ Acts on several tissues to cause entry of ●​ Parts:
glucose into cells and promotes decrease of ○​ two lobes connected by an isthmus
blood glucose content ○​ Numerous spheric follicles
○​ Thin capsule covering (septa)
Insulin:
●​ glucose uptake by most cells
Thyroid Follicles
●​ Glycogen synthesis by hepatocytes
●​ Triglyceride synthesis by adipocytes
●​ Cell type: outer simple epithelium of
Abnormalities in B Cells follicular cells
●​ Diabetes mellitus (hyperglycemia) ●​ Encloses a central lumen filled with colloid
○​ Hyposecretion or lack of insulin ●​ Enlarges during stimulation
○​ Great excess of blood glucose
○​ Glucose spills over in the urine A. Thyroid Follicular Cells
(glycosuria)
●​ Hypoglycemia
○​ Hyperplasia and neoplasia of B cells ●​ Embryonic origin: endoderm
○​ Hyperinsulinism syndrome ●​ Structure: typical peptide-hormone
secreting cell ultrastructure
●​ Cell height: squamous (inactive) to
Delta Cells columnar (active) during stimulation by
TSH
Delta Cells ●​ Store an intermediate form of their
●​ Inhibits the release of other islet cell secretory product (thyroglobulin)
hormones through local paracrine action extracellularly rather than internally in
●​ Secretes somatostatin cytoplasmic granules
○​ Suppresses the release of insulin, ●​ Normal functions:
glucagon, and growth hormone ○​ Synthesis and storage of
●​ Secretes gastrin thyroglobulin
○​ Stimulates secretion by glands in the ○​ Uptake and oxidation of iodide
gastric mucosa (lining of the ○​ Iodination of thyroglobulin and
stomach) formation of thyroid hormone
○​ Thyroid hormone secretion
Abnormalities in Delta Cells ○​ Targets and effects of thyroid
●​ Gastrinoma (Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome) hormones
○​ Causes peptic ulcers through
excessive acid secretion by parietal Synthesis and Storage of Thyroglobulin
cells (response to gastrin)

1.​ Synthesis of thyroglobulin protein (tyrosine

F Cells (PP Cells) residues) on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
F Cells 2.​ Glycosylation of thyroglobulin in the
●​ Secrete pancreatic polypeptide endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex
○​ Inhibits pancreatic exocrine ●​ Glycosylation: process of attaching
secretion of enzymes and sugar molecules (carbohydrates or
bicarbonate glycans) to proteins or lipids
○​ Causes relaxation of the gall bladder 3.​ Packaging of vesicles in the Golgi complex
○​ Decreases the secretion of bile (for 4.​ Fusion of vesicles with the apical cell
lipid metabolism and fat membrane, resulting in exocytosis of the
emulsification) thyroglobulin into the colloid in the lumen
of the follicle

Thyroid Gland
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

Uptake and Oxidation of Iodide

A. hyperthyroidism
●​ Also called thyrotoxicosis
●​ A molecular pump in the follicular cell’s ●​ Symptoms:
basal plasma membrane transfers ○​ Nervousness
circulating iodide into the cytoplasm ○​ Palpitation
●​ It is then oxidized by peroxidase and then ○​ Rapid pulse
transferred to the cell’s apex ○​ Muscular weakness
●​ Iodide uptake is stimulated by TSH ○​ Fatigue
○​ Weight loss with good appetite
Iodination of Thyroglobulin and ○​ Excessive perspiration
Formation of Thyroid Hormone ○​ Heat intolerance
●​ Goiter
○​ Swelling of the thyroid gland
●​ Iodination of tyrosine residues in the
because of increased deposits of
thyroglobulin
thyroglobulin
1.​ Enzymes at the plasma membranes of the
B. Hypothyroidism
apical microvilli projecting into the colloid
●​ Also called cretinism (children) and
2.​ One iodide + tyrosine residues results in
myxedema (adults) due to iodine-deficient
Monoiodotyrosine (MIT)
diet
3.​ A second iodide attaches to MIT producing
●​ Poor glucose utilization
diiodotyrosine (DIT)
●​ Symptoms:
4.​ 2 iodinated tyrosines produces thyronine
○​ Lethargy
5.​ 2 DIT produces tetraiodothyronine
○​ Intolerance to cold
(thyroxine, T4)
○​ Slowing of intellectual and motor
6.​ 1 MIT and 1 DIT produces triiodothyronine
skills
(T3)
○​ Accumulation of GAGs in the dermis
○​ Weight gain
Thyroid Hormone Secretion ●​ Mechanistic action:
○​ Iodine deficiency -> uniodinated
●​ Stimulation by TSH thyroxine -> no negative feedback on
●​ Follicular cells take in colloid by pinocytosis, TSH production -> enlargement and
producing vesicles filled with iodinated goiter
thyroglobulin
○​ Vesicles fuse with lysosomes and B. Parafollicular Cells
Pass through the cytoplasm and
traverse the plasma membrane to
reach the bloodstream ●​ Interspersed among the follicular cells or in
clusters between follicles
●​ Stains poorly and appears clear or white
Targets and Effects of Thyroxine ●​ EM shows small secretory granules
(chemobranchial bodies)
●​ T3 and T4 acts on cells throughout the body ●​ Secrete calcitonin
●​ Function: ●​ Calcitonin: causes calcium uptake by cells
○​ Increase basal metabolic rate to and increased calcium deposition in bone,
promote cell growth, increase heart lowering blood calcium levels
rate, raise body temperature, etc. ○​ Antagonistic to parathyroid
○​ Act on TRH-secreting cells of the hormone
hypothalamus and the thyrotropes in
the adenohypophysis to reduce TSH Parathyroid Gland
secretion

●​ Four small glands located on the posterior

Abnormal Functions of the Thyroid surface of the thyroid gland
Endocrine System | Anatomy & Physiology | Finals
Shiloh Clarisse C. Buenaventura | BSBIO 3A Instructor: H. Yango

●​ Embryonic origin: 3rd to 4th pharyngeal

pouches (endoderm) ●​ Also called epiphysis cerebri or pineal body
●​ Comprised of two cell types ●​ Flattened conical organ (5-8 mm L and 3-5
○​ Chief cells mm W) and weighs 120 mg.
○​ Oxyphil cells ●​ Found in the posterior extremity of the third
ventricle, above the roof of the
diencephalon, to which it is connected by a
Chief Cells
short stalk.
●​ Covered by pia mater, extensions of which
●​ Shape: Polygonal cells (4-8 um) penetrate the organ
●​ Function: Secrete parathyroid hormone ●​ Extensions carry blood vessels and form
(PTH) in response to low blood calcium irregular septa
levels ●​ Contains globular basophilic clusters called
●​ PTH increase calcium levels brain sand (corpora arenacea)
○​ BONE: increase bone resorption ○​ Crystal inclusion that are more
○​ KIDNEY: increase phosphate common in males
excretion and calcium reabsorption
and causes activation of Vit D Two cells types:
precursor ●​ Pinealocytes
○​ INTESTINE: increase absorption of ○​ With large irregular nuclei with
calcium from food by the intestinal prominent nucleoli
mucosa ○​ Secrete MELATONIN (secretion is
active at night)
Abnormal Functions of Chief Cells ■​ Establish circadian rhythms
A. Hypoparathyroidism ■​ Antigonadotropic effects that
●​ Disruption of neuromuscular function delay onset of sexual
●​ Low blood calcium levels maturity until puberty
○​ Leads to spontaneous and ●​ Astroglial cells
uncontrolled firing of action ○​ Also called interstitial cells, with
potentials, causing muscle spasms or long cytoplasmic processes
tetany containing intermediate filaments
○​ Found around blood vessels and
B. Hyperparathyroidism between clusters of pinealocytes
●​ Excessive PTH elevates calcium
(hypercalcemia) and decreases serum
phosphate (hypophosphatemia)
●​ Symptoms:
○​ increased urine calcium
○​ abnormal deposits of calcium in
arteries and kidneys
○​ excessive loss of calcium from bones
which leads to osteomalacia
(softening of bones due to impaired
mineralization) and osteitis fibrosa
cystica (severe bone pain and
weakness).

Oxyphil Cells

●​ Larger and less numerous than chief cells

●​ Intensely acidophilic due to mitochondria
●​ Function not well understood

Pineal Gland