KASHMIR HARVARD EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE

Ladder to Prosperity
Habak Naseem Bagh
Class: 10th Doc: Study Material Sub: Physics
CHAPTER: ELECTRICITY
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE CHAPTER
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
- Understand the basic concepts of electricity and electric circuits.
- Apply Ohm's Law and calculate resistance, voltage, and current.
- Identify the characteristics of series and parallel circuits.
- Explain the heating effects of electric current and safety precautions.
- Understand the importance of electrical energy and its applications.
CONTENT
 Understanding Electricity
1. Define electricity and explain its importance in daily life.
2. Understand the concept of electric charge, its types (positive and
negative), and properties.
 Electric Current
1. Define electric current and explain its unit (Ampere).
2. Understand the concept of electric circuit, conductor, and insulator.
3. Identify the different types of electric circuits (series, parallel).
 Resistance and Ohm's Law
1. Define resistance and explain its unit (Ohm).
2. Understand Ohm's Law (V = IR) and its application.
3. Calculate resistance using Ohm's Law.
 Electric Power
1. Define electric power and explain its unit (Watt).
2. Understand the concept of electrical energy and its unit (Kilowatt-
hour).
3. Calculate electric power using the formula (P = VI).
 Series and Parallel Circuits
1. Understand the characteristics of series and parallel circuits.
2. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each type of circuit.
3. Calculate the total resistance in series and parallel circuits.
 Heating Effects of Electric Current
1. Understand the heating effects of electric current.
2. Explain the concept of electric fuse and its importance.
3. Identify the safety precautions to prevent electrical shocks.
 Electrical Energy and Its Applications
1. Understand the importance of electrical energy in daily life.
2. Identify the different applications of electrical energy (heating,
lighting, etc.).
3. Explain the concept of energy conservation and its importance.
Electric charge(Q): Electric charge is a property of some elementary
particles (like electrons and protons) that give rise to electromagnetic
interactions between them, resulting in various electrical phenomena.
Charge occurs in nature in two forms, conveniently described as positive and negative to distinguish between two kinds
of interactions (attraction or Repulsion) between particles.
“Like Charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.”
Large scale matter that consists of equal number of electrons and protons is electrically neutral.
If there is an excess of electrons, the body is negatively charged and an excess in protons results in positive charge.
The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 × 1018
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 electrons. (We know that an electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C.)
One Coulomb is defined as the amount of charge transported by a current of one ampere in one second.
1C = 1A × 1s.
Where:
 C = Coulomb (unit of charge)
 A = Ampere (unit of electric current)
 s = Second (unit of time)
Electric current: An electric current is defined as the ordered motion of electric charges. i.e.
The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is called electric
current. It is measured by using Ammeter. It is always connected
in series in a circuit through which the current is to be
measured.
or
in other words, the magnitude of the current 'I' is the charge flowing
in the circuit in one second. Mathematically current is expressed
as
Current (I) = Charge (coulomb) / Time (Second)
I = Q/t
Where 'Q' is charge and „t‟ stands for time. The unit of electric current is 'ampere' (A) named after the French
scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere
One ampere (A) is defined as the amount of electric
current that flows, when one coulomb of charge passes
through a conductor in one second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
1A=1C/1s

Electrostatic Potential: The electrostatic potential is defined as the work done in

bringing a single positive charge from infinity to t h a t point in the electric field.
Any point outside the electric field or space is called an infinite point. The unit of
potential is volt (V).
Electric potential is a Scalar quantity.

Electric potential difference: Electric potential difference between any two points A
and B through a conductor is defined as the amount of work done to move a unit
charge from A to B.
If W is the work done to move a charge Q from a point A to point B on a conductor, then a potential difference
between A and B is given by
Potential Difference = Work done / Quantity of charge transferred.
Or V=W/Q
Thus, if a body is given Q coulomb of charge to raise its potential by V volt, then the amount of work done will be
VQ joule.
W = VQ
The S.I. unit of potential difference is volt (V) n a m e d a f t e r A l e s s a n d r o V o l t a ( 1 7 4 5 – 1 8 2 7 ) , a n
I t a l i a n p h y s i c i s t and is a scalar quantity. It is measured by using voltmeter. The voltmeter is always
connected in parallel across the points between which the potential difference is to be measured.

One Volt: -If the amount of work done in bringing 1

coulomb of charge from infinity to a given point in the
electric field is 1 joule, then the potential at that point is
said to be 1 volt.
Thus, 1 volt= 1 joule/ 1 coulomb

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Electric circuit: The closed path through which an electric current flow is known as an electric circuit. The circuit is
called 'closed' when the current flows in the circuit, and when the current does not flow, it is called an 'open circuit'.
When the switch is "closed" (in the "on" position), it completes the circuit, allowing current to flow through the
circuit and powering the connected devices (e.g., light bulbs, fans, etc.).
When the switch is "open" (in the "off" position), it breaks the circuit, stopping the flow of current and turning off
the connected devices.
Series: If the components of a circuit are connected in a single loop,
so that the same current flows through all the loads then the
connection is called 'series' circuit.

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 Parallel Circuits: If each of the components has a separate connection with a battery, then the circuit is said to be in
parallel. The potential difference across the elements remains the same.
Conductors: Substances which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors. These are made

from materials which have low resistance. Metals like copper, aluminium, silver, iron, brass and salt solutions also are
good conductors of electricity.
Insulators: Substances which do not allow electricity to pass through them easily are calledinsulators. These are made
from materials which have high resistance. Some substances like air, plastic, cotton, rubber, wood, paper, glass, pure
water, etc. are insulators.
Ohm‟s Law: The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between its
ends at constant temperature.
Mathematically, V ∞ I
OR, V = IR
=> V/I = R
Where V is the potential difference, I is the current and R is the constant of proportionality, called as
resistance. It is also expressed as
I=V/R
This equation implies that the current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to potential difference
and inversely proportional to the resistance, thus if the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is doubled
and if the potential difference is halved the current also gets halved and if the resistance is halved the current gets
doubled.
Experimental verification of Ohm‟s Law: To verify Ohm‟s law, the arrangement of the apparatus is to be made as
per the given diagram.
The potential difference across a conductor, say XY for different values of current I
passing through it is measured with the help of a voltmeter and then it shows that the
ratio V/I remains constant. The arrangement of the electrical circuit contains a battery
of two to three cells (B), arheostat (Rh), an ammeter (A) and a key (K) are connected in
series with a conductor (XY) whose ends X and Y are connected to a voltmeter (V).
In the circuit the ammeter measures the current I passing through the conductor and the
voltmeter measures the potential difference V across the conductor.
The current through the conductor is varying by adjusting the variable resistance. The
resistance and thecorresponding values of the potential difference are recorded in order to verify the Ohm‟s law.
Resistance: The resistance of a conductor may be defined in terms of current passing through it and the potential
difference across its ends. Resistance of a wire is the ratio of the potential difference 'V' across its ends and the
current 'I' flowing through it.
R=V/I
The unit of resistance is called the ohm, named after George Simon ohm, who found the relationship
between current and potential differences. This law is called 'Ohm‟s law'. The Greek letter omega (Ω) is used to
represent resistance.
One ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 ampere flows when the potential difference
across its ends is 1 volt.

Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends: The resistance of a conductor is affected by the following
factors:
i. Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the wire i.e., the longer the wire, greater will

be the resistance and shorter the wire smaller will be the resistance. If L represents the length of the uniform

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 wire, then
ii. Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of the cross-section of the uniform wire. That
means thinner the wire greater the resistance and thicker the wire lowers the resistance. If A is the
area of cross-section of the uniform wire, then

Resistivity: Resistivity of a material is the resistance between the ends of a conductor of length one meter and area of
cross-section of one square - meter. Unit of (resistivity) is Ohm-meter (Ωm). In other words, resistivity of a material is
the resistance between the opposite faces of a unit cube of that material. By combining both the factors on which
resistance of a conductor depends, we get

where is the constant of proportionality called the resistivity of the material of the wire.

Combination of resistances: The resistors (resistances) can be joined together in two ways i.e. in series and parallel
combinations.
i. Series combination of resistors: Let us consider two resistors 'R1' and
'R2' connected in series. A battery of 'V' volts is applied to the ends of this
series combination. Let us name the potential difference across R1 as V1,
and that across R2as V2. Since 'V' represents energy, according to the law
of conservation of energy
V = V1+ V2 ---------------(1)
i.e., the total potential difference across the two resistors should be equal to the
voltage of thebattery. Using Ohm's law,
V = IR , V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2 ---------(2)
where I is the current flowing through the circuit and 'R' represents the equivalent resistance of the two
resistances. Substituting (2) in (1) we get
IR = IR1 + IR2
R = R1+ R2
The equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual resistances connected in series. The above result can be
generalized for 'n' number of resistances of different values as R = R1+ R2 +----------+ Rn.

ii. Parallel combination of resistors: Connect two resistors 'R1' and 'R2' in
parallel to one another between the points A and B. Connect this
combination to a battery of potential 'V'. Here the potential difference
across R1and R2 will be equal to battery voltage. But the total current I
flowing in the circuit. branches as I1 through R1 and I2 through R2.
Since there cannot be an accumulation of charges at any point.
I=I1+I2 ----------------------------------eq 1
Using Ohm's law,

I= --------- eq-(2)

Substituting the above set of equations (2) in equation (1) we get

-------eq-3

Divide equation (3) throughout by V we get

If the resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of all the individual resistances. This result can begeneralized for any n resistors.

Heating effect of electric current: According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can be transformed from

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 one form to another. When an electric current is passed through a metallic wire like the filament of an electric heater,
oven or geyser, the filament gets heated up and here the electrical energy is converted into heat energy. This is known
as the 'heating effect of current'.
A potential difference is a measure of work done in moving a unit of charge across a circuit. Current in a circuit is
equal to the amount of charge flowing in one second. Therefore, the work done in moving 'Q' charges through a
potential difference 'V' in a time 't' is given by
Work done = potential difference x current x time
W = VIt
The same can be expressed differently using ohm's law. According to ohm's law V = IR Therefore work can
be expressed as
W = VIt
or W = (IR) It = I2Rt
The work done 'W' gets dissipated in the resistors as heat energy H

Thus, heat produced is directly proportional to the resistance, to the time and to the square of the current.

This is also known as joule‟s law of heating and it states that heat produced in a conductor (resistor) is directly
proportional to product of square of current, resistance of conductor and the current flowing through it.
Power: Power is the rate of doing work or in other words, it is the work done in one second. If a current of 'I' amperes
flows through a conductor of resistance 'R' ohm for a time 't' seconds when thepotential difference across its ends is 'V'
volt, then the electric power consumed
P=

OR P=

Using Ohm's law, 'Power' can also be expressed as

P=I2R
Or P= V2 /R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of current when
operated at a potential difference of 1 V.
Thus, 1 W = 1 volt x 1 ampere = 1 V A
One watt is defined as the work done of 1 joule in an electric circuit for 1 second.
i.e. 1 watt = 1 joule / 1 second.
Electrical energy: The electrical energy consumed in an electric circuit is the total work done by the electrical circuit
or energy supplied by the source of electromagnetic force (e.m.f) in maintaining the current in an electric circuit for
a given time period.
Therefore, Electrical energy (E) = W= V x I x T
Or, E=PxT (because P= V x T)
i.e. Electric Energy = Electric power x time.
The S.I. unit of electric energy is joule. Since the joule is a very small unit for measuringelectric energy
used commercially. So it is generally measured in watt-hour or kilowatt-hour.
i.e. 1 watt-hour (Wh) = 1 watt x 1 hour
= 1 joule / second x 3600 seconds
= 1 x 3600 joules.
1 kilowatt-hour = 1000 watt-hour
= 1000 watt x 3600 seconds
= 3600000 joules
= 3.6 x 106 joules
TEXTUAL QUESTIONS
Q1: What does an electric circuit mean?
Ans: A continuous and closed path through which an electric current flow is called an electric circuit.
Q2: Define the unit of current.
Ans: Unit of current is ampere.

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If one coulomb of charge flows through any section of a conductor in one second, then the current through it is said to be
one ampere.
I = Qt or 1 A = I C s-1
Q3: Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.
Ans: Charge on one electron, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Total charge, Q = 1 C
Number of electrons, n = Qe = 1 x 1.6x10−19 = 6.25 x 1018
Q4: Name a device that helps to maintain a potential difference across a conductor.
Ans: A battery.
Q5: What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is IV?
Ans: The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving 1 coulomb of
electric charge from one point to the other.
Q6: How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
Ans: Energy given by battery = charge x potential difference
or [W = QV = 1C X 6V = 6J.]
Q7: On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?
OR
List the factors on which the resistance of a conductor in the shape of a wire depends. [CBSE2018]
Ans: The resistance of a conductor depends on
I. length
II. Area of cross-section and
III. Nature of its material.
Q8: Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when connected to the
same source? Why?
Ans: The current will flow more easily through a thick wire than a thin wire of the same material. Larger the area of
cross-section of a conductor, more is the ease with which the electrons can move through the conductor. Therefore,
smaller is the resistance of the conductor.
Q9: Let the resistance of an electrical component remain constant while the potential difference across the two
ends of the component decreases to half of its former value. What change will occur in the current through it?
Ans: When potential difference is halved, the current through the component also decreases to half of its initial value.
This is according to ohm‟s law i.e., V ∝ I.
Q10: Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons are made of an-alloy rather than a pure metal ?
OR
Why are alloys commonly used in electric heating devices? Given reason. [CBSE 2018]
Ans: The coils of electric toasters, electric irons and other heating devices are made of an alloy rather than a pure metal
because
(i) the resistivity of an alloy is much higher than that of a pure metal, and
(ii) An alloy does not undergo oxidation (or burn) easily even at high temperature, when it is red hot.
Q11: Use the data in Table 12.2 (in NCERT Book on Page No. 207) to answer the following :
(i) Which among iron and mercury is a better conductor ?
(ii) Which material is the best conductor ?
Ans: (i) Resistivity of iron = 10.0 x 10-8 Ω m
Resistivity of mercury = 94.0 x 10-8 Ω m.
Thus iron is a better conductor because it has lower resistivity than mercury.
(ii) Because silver has the lowest resistivity (= 1.60 x 10-8 Ω m), therefore silver is the best conductor.
Q12: What does an electric circuit mean?
Ans: A continuous and closed path through which an electric current flow is called an electric circuit.
Q13: Define the unit of current.
Ans: Unit of current is ampere. If one coulomb of charge flows through any section of a conductor in one second, then
the current through it is said to be one ampere.
I = Qt or 1 A = I C s-1
Q14: Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge.
Ans: Charge on one electron, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

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Total charge, Q = 1 C
Number of electrons, n = Qe = 1C1.6x10−19 = 6.25 x 1018
Q15: Name a device that helps to maintain a potential difference across a conductor.
Ans: A battery.
Q16: What is meant by saying that the potential difference between two points is IV?
Ans: The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving 1 coulomb of
electric charge from one point to the other.
Q17: How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 V battery?
Ans: Energy given by battery = charge x potential difference
or W = QV = 1C X 6V = 6J.
Q18: On what factors does the resistance of a conductor depend?
OR
List the factors on which the resistance of a conductor in the shape of a wire depends. [CBSE2018]
Ans: The resistance of a conductor depends (i) on its length (ii) on its area of cross-section and (iii) on the nature of its
material.
Q19: Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same material, when connected to
the same source? Why?
Ans: The current will flow more easily through a thick wire than a thin wire of the same material. Larger the area of
cross-section of a conductor, more is the ease with which the electrons can move through the conductor. Therefore,
smaller is the resistance of the conductor.
Q20: Let the resistance of an electrical component remain constant while the potential difference across the two
ends of the component decreases to half of its former value. What change will occur in the current flowing
through it?
Ans: When potential difference is halved, the current through the component also decreases to half of its initial value.
This is according to ohm‟s law i.e., V ∝ I.
Q21: Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons are made of an-alloy rather than a pure metal?
OR
Q22: Why are alloys commonly used in electric heating devices? Given reason. [CBSE 2018]
Ans: The coils of electric toasters, electric irons and other heating devices are made of an alloy rather than a pure metal
because (i) the resistivity of an alloy is much higher than that of a pure metal, and (ii) an alloy does not undergo
oxidation (or burn) easily even at high temperature, when it is red hot.
Q23: Use the data in Table 12.2 (in NCERT Book on Page No. 207) to answer the following :
(i) Which among iron and mercury is a better conductor ?
(ii) Which material is the best conductor ?
Ans: (i) Resistivity of iron = 10.0 x 10-8 Ω m
Resistivity of mercury = 94.0 x 10-8 Ω m.
Thus iron is a better conductor because it has lower resistivity than mercury.
(ii) Because silver has the lowest resistivity (= 1.60 x 10-8 Ω m), therefore silver is the best conductor.
Q24: Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of a battery of three cells of 2 V each, a 5Ω resistor, an 8 Ω
resistor, and a 12 Ω resistor, and a plug key, all connected in series.
Ans: The required circuit diagram is shown below :

Q25: Redraw the circuit of Questions 1, putting in an ammeter to

measure the current through the resistors and a voltmeter to measure
the potential difference across the 12 Ω resistor. What would be the
readings in the ammeter and the voltmeter?
Sol: The required circuit diagram is shown on the right.
Total voltage, V = 3 x 2 = 6V
Total resistance, R = 5Ω + 8Ω + 12Ω = 25Ω

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Q26: Judge the equivalent resistance when the following are connected in parallel:
(i) 1 Ω and 106 Ω,
(if) 1 Ω and 103 Ω and 106 Ω.
Ans: When the resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest individual
resistance.
(i) Equivalent resistance < 1 Ω.
(ii) Equivalent resistance < 1 Ω.
Q27: An electric lamp of 100 Ω, a toaster of resistance 50 Ω, and a water filter of resistance 500 Ω are connected
in parallel to a 220 V source. What is the resistance of an electric iron connected to the same source that takes as
much current as all three appliances, and what is the current through it ?
Sol: Resistance of electric lamp, R1 = 100 Ω
Resistance of toaster, R2 = 50 Ω
Resistance of water filter, R3 = 500 Ω
Equivalent resistance Rp of the three appliances connected in parallel, is

Resistance of electric iron = Equivalent resistance of the three appliances connected in parallel = 31.25 Ω
Applied voltage, V = 220 V
Current, I = VR = 220V 31.25Ω
Q28: What are the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with the battery instead of connecting
them in series ?
Ans: Advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with the battery are :
1. In parallel circuits, if an electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other appliances
keep working normally.
2. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned on turned off
independently, without affecting other appliances.
3. In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance gets the same voltage (220 V) as that of the power supply
line.
4. In the parallel connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the household circuit is reduced
due to which the current from the power supply is high.
Q29: How can three resistors of resistances 2Ω, 3 Ω, and 6Ω be connected to give a total resistance of (i) 4 Ω,
(ii) 1 Ω ?
Sol: (i) We can get a total resistance of 4Ω by connecting the 2Ω resistance in series with the parallel combination of 3Ω
and 6Ω.

(ii) We can obtain a total resistance of 1Ω by connecting resistors of 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 6 Ω in parallel.

Q30: What is (i) the highest, (ii) the lowest total resistance that can be secured by combinations of four coils of
resistance 4 Ω, 8 Ω, 12 Ω, 24 Ω?
Sol: (i) Highest resistance can be obtained by connecting the four coils in series.
Then, R = 4Ω + 8Ω + 12Ω + 24Ω = 48Ω
(ii) Lowest resistance can be obtained by connecting the four coils in parallel.

Q31: Why does the cord of an electric heater not glow while the heating element does ?
Sol: Heat generated in a circuit is given by I2R t. The heating element of an electric heater made of nichrome glows
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because it becomes red-hot due to the large amount of heat produced on passing current because of its high resistance,
but the cord of the electric heater made of copper does not glow because negligible heat is produced in it by passing
current because of its extremely low resistance.
Q32: Compute the heat generated while transferring 96000 coulombs of charge in one hour through a potential
difference of 50 V.
Sol: Here, Q = 96,000 C, t =1 hour = 1 x 60 x 60 sec = 3,600 s, V = 50 V
Heat generated, H = VQ = 50Vx 96,000 C = 48,00,000 J = 4.8 x 106 J
Q33: An electric iron of resistance 20Ω takes a current of 5 A. Calculate the heat developed in 30 s.
Sol: Here, R = 20 Ω, i = 5 A, t = 3s
Heat developed, H = I2 R t = 25 x 20 x 30 = 15,000 J = 1.5 x 104 J
Q34: What determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current?
Ans: Resistance of the circuit determines the rate at which energy is delivered by a current.
Q35: An electric motor takes 5 A from a 220 V line. Determine the power of the motor and the energy consumed
in 2 h.
Ans: Here, I = 5 A, V = 220 V, t = 2h = 7,200 s
Power, P = V I = 220 x 5 = 1100 W
Energy consumed = P x t = 100 W x 7200 s = 7,20,000 J = 7.2 x 105
CHAPTER: MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Learning Outcomes
o Explain the relationship between electric current and magnetic fields.
o Recognize the role of electromagnets in technology and industry.
o Perform experiments to observe the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.
o Analyze and interpret data from experiments to understand how changing current affects magnetic field
strength and direction.
o Apply knowledge of magnetic effects to troubleshoot simple electromagnetic devices.
o Relate the magnetic effects of electric current to broader concepts in physics, such as energy
transformation and conservation.
o Evaluate the impact of electromagnetic fields on health and the environment.
Concept Map

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Magnetism: Any material that has the property of attracting small pieces of iron is called a magnet, and the property of
attracting small pieces of iron by a magnet is known as magnetism.
Magnetic force: The force that the magnet exerts on iron is known as magnetic force. Thus, a magnet is a substance
which has both attractive and directive properties. The magnets can have any shape, but usually it is in the form of a bar
magnet or a horseshoe magnet etc.
Magnetic field: Magnetic field is a region near a magnetized body
where magnetic forces can be detected. In a magnetic field, the
magnetic dipole (Two equal and oppositely magnetized poles separated
by a distance is referred to as magnetic dipole) experiences a turning
force, which tends to align it parallel to the direction of the field.
The space around a magnet in which the force of attraction and
repulsion due to the magnet can be detected is called the magnetic
field.
If we place a magnet on a cardboard sheet and gently sprinkle some iron
filings uniformly over it. The iron filings are found to arrange
themselves in a particular pattern. This is due to the reason that
each piece of iron filing becomes a small magnet and
experiences a force in a certain direction in the magnetic field
due to the magnet. The direction of magnetic field at a point is
the direction of the resultant force acting on a hypothetical
north pole placed at that point.
Magnetic lines of force (magnetic field line): The curved
paths (lines) along which the iron filings arrange themselves
due to the force acting on them in the magnetic field of the bar
magnet are called magnetic field lines. If the position of the
magnet is changed, the arrangement of the iron filings also
changes.
Properties of magnetic field lines:
i. A magnetic field line is directed from North Pole to South Pole outside the magnet.
ii. A magnetic field line is a closed and continuous curve.
iii. The magnetic field lines are crowded near the pole where the magnetic field is strong and are apart near the
middle of the magnet and far from the magnet where the magnetic field is weak.
iv. The magnetic field lines never intersect each other because if they do so, there would be two directions of
magnetic field at that point which is absurd.
v. In case the field lines are parallel and equidistant, these represent a uniform magnetic field. The earth‟s magnetic
field is uniform in a limited space.
Oersted experiment (relation between electricity and magnetism):
It was Hans Christian Oersted in 1820 who found that there exist a relationship between the magnetism and electricity.
Oersted used to demonstrate that electricity and magnetism had got no relationship with each other. He used to do this
experiment by placing a current carrying conductor XY directly over a pivoted magnetic needle NS but perpendicular to
the axis of the needle showing that the needle did not move. But one day, he happened to place the current carrying
conductor parallel to the axis of the needle and the needle was deflected which was much against his expectations. On
reversing the direction of current, the needle moved in the opposite direction. On further investigation, Oersted found
that the direction of deflection of the needle depends not only on the direction of current but also on whether the
conductor was above or below the needle. Thus, Oersted experiment demonstrated that around every conductor carrying
an electric current, there is a magnetic field. In other words, it can be said that magnetism can be produced from electric
current.

Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor:

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 i. Magnetic field through straight conductor: Let AB be a straight vertical
wire which passes through a horizontal cardboard sheet C. the ends of the
wire AB are connected to a battery. When current is passed through wire AB,
it produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic field has magnetic lines
of force around the wire AB which can be seen by sprinkling iron filings on
the cardboard. The iron filings get magnetized and on tapping the cardboard
sheet, the iron filings arrange themselves in circular patterns around the wire.

The magnitude of magnetic field produced by a straight current carrying wire

at a given point is directly proportional to the current passing in the wire and
inversely proportional to the distance of that point from the wire. It is
denoted by B.
i.e. B ∞ I and B ∞1/r
=> B ∞ I/r
The direction of magnetic field is given by right grip rule. Suppose a straight conductor is in our hand such that
the thumb points in the direction of current. The direction of curling of fingers of right hand gives the direction of
magnetic field lines.
ii. Magnetic field through a circular loop: Suppose a short
circular coil is fixed to a thin cardboard sheet. When a
current is passed through the circular coil, a magnetic field
is produced around it. The pattern of magnetic lines of force
due to a current carrying circular loop is as shown in figure.
The magnitude of magnetic field produced by a current
carrying circular wire at its center is directly proportional to
the current passing through the circular wire and inversely
proportional to the radius of the circular wire. From the
pattern of magnetic field lines it is found that
1. The magnetic field lines near the coil are nearly circular
and concentric.
2. Near the center of the coil, the field lines are nearly
straight and parallel. As such the magnetic fields at the center of the coil can be taken to be uniform.
3. The field lines are in the dame direction in the space enclosed by the coil.
4. The direction of the magnetic field at the center is perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
The magnitude of the magnetic field (B) at the center of the coil is directly proportional to the current (I)
flowing through it and is inversely proportional to the radius (r) of the coil. It is also directly proportional to the
total number of turns (N) in the coil.
i.e. B∞I, B∞N and B∞1/r
By combining all three we get
B∞N.I/r
Looking at the face of the coil, if the current around that face is in clockwise direction, the face is the south pole,
while as if the current around the face is in the anticlockwise direction, the face is the north pole.
iii. Magnetic field due to current through a solenoid: A solenoid is a long coil (shaped like a cylinder) containing a
large number of close turns of insulated copper wire. The figure shows a solenoid SN whose ends are connected to
a battery B through a switch X. When a current is passed through a solenoid, it produces a magnetic field around it.
The magnetic field is shown in the fig. It is along the axis of the solenoid and is almost constant in magnitude and
direction. The magnetic lines of force inside the solenoid are nearly parallel to each other and parallel to the axis of
the solenoid. A solenoid, when suspended
freely, aligns itself in the north-south direction, thus
behaving like a bar magnet. One end of the solenoid acts
like a north pole and the other end the South Pole. The
polarity of the solenoid can be changed by reversing the
direction of the current. The strength of the magnetic field
produced by a current carrying solenoid depends on:
1. The number of turns - larger the number of turns, the
greater is the magnetism produced.
2. The strength of the current - when the current
increases, magnetism also increases.
3. Nature of 'core-material' used in making the solenoid -

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 if we use soft-iron as a core for the solenoid, then it produces the strongest magnetism.
Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet and is just a solenoid with its winding in soft iron
core. An electromagnet consists of a soft iron core AB placed inside a solenoid. The current in the solenoid can be
adjusted with a rheostat „Rh‟ in the circuit having a battery and a key K. An electromagnet acquires magnetic
properties only when an electric current is passed through the solenoid. Once the current is switched off, it almost
loses its magnetic properties as the retentivity of soft iron is very low. The strength of an electromagnet depends
upon.
i. The number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
ii. The current through the solenoid.
iii. The length of air gap between the poles
Uses of electromagnet:
i. Electromagnets are used in electrical devices such as an electric bell, electric fan, telegraph, electric trains, electric
motor, electric generator etc.
ii. Electromagnets are used for lifting and transporting large masses of iron in the form of girders.
iii. Electromagnets are used in medical practice for removing pieces of iron from wounds.
Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet: The strength of an electromagnet is:
i. Directly proportional to the number of turns in the solenoid.
ii. Directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flowing in the coil.
iii. Inversely proportional to the length of the air gap between its poles and.
iv. It also depends on the shape of the electromagnet. (The strength of the U-shaped magnet is more than the bar
shaped electromagnet.
Differences between a permanent magnet and electromagnet:
Permanent magnet Electromagnet
1. It cannot be readily demagnetized. 1. It can be readily demagnetized by stopping
the current through the solenoid.
2. The magnetic field of a permanent 2. An electromagnet produces a strong
magnet is comparatively weak, and its magnetic field whose strength can be
strength cannot be changed. changed by changing the current through
3. the solenoid.
4. The polarity of a permanent magnet is 3. The polarity of an electromagnet can easily
fixed and cannot be easily changed. be reversed by changing the direction of
flow of current through the solenoid.

Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: Let a piece of wire AB is suspended from a hook with its
lower end dipping into a pool of mercury C. A and C are connected through a battery and resistance or rheostat, so that a
current flows down the wire. Two magnets are placed with their poles N and S towards the wire in opposition with each
other. The direction of the magnetic field is from north to south and is perpendicular to the core. When a current flows it
is found that the wire moves out of the plane of the paper. The circuit is broken, and the wire falls back in the mercury
completing the circuit again and then once more swings out in the same direction. The magnetic field exerts a force on a
current carrying conductor and causes it to move. If the direction of magnetic field is reversed, then the rod moves in the
opposite direction. If the entire straight conductor of length „l‟
is situated in a uniform magnetic field of induction B, the
magnitude of a mechanical force F is given by the
relationship.

F = I. L. B. Sin θ

Where „I‟ is current, „l‟ is the length of the straight conductor

„B‟ is the strength of magnetic field and θ is the angle
between the direction of „I‟ and direction of „B‟. When θ=0o
or 180o, i.e. the conductor lies along the line of magnetic
induction, then Sinθ = Sin 0o or Sin180o= 0, do then F=0
(minimum value) and when θ=90o. i.e. the conductor lies at
right angles to the magnetic field. Then Sinθ=Sin90o=1 and
F=I.L.B. From the above experiment, we conclude that
initially the current, the magnetic field and the direction of the
force on the wire are all mutually at right angles to each other.
This is being described by the Fleming‟s left-hand rule as “Stretch the thumb, the first finger and the middle finger of the
left hand so that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the first (fore) finger is the direction of the magnetic
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field, the central finger points in the direction of current, then the thumb points in the direction of motion of the
conductor”.
Domestic electric circuit:
1. Electric fuse: An electric fuse is a device which is used to limit the current in an electric circuit. The fuse safeguards
the circuit and the electrical appliances from being damaged. The fuse wire is generally an alloy of lead and tin. It has
a low melting point and breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe value. The thickness and length of the fuse wire
depends on the maximum current allowed through the circuit. It is connected in series in the beginning of the electric
circuits.
2. Overloading: If too many electrical appliances of high-power rating (like electric iron, water heater etc.) are
switched on at the same time, they draw an extremely large current from the circuit. This condition is called
overloading, and it can cause overheating of the wiring and lead to a fire. It can also happen due to an accidental hike
in the supply voltage.
3. Short-circuiting: In an electric circuit a short - circuit occurs whenever the live wire and the neutral wire come in
direct contact. The wires may touch each other due to faulty connection or sometimes due to wearing off the
insulation. This condition leads to overheating of the wires and causes a fire.
4. Earthing of Electrical Appliances: To avoid the risk of electric shocks, the metal of an electrical appliance is
'earthed‟. Earthed means to connect the metal case of the appliance to the earth (at zero potential) by means of a
metal wire (copper) called the earth wire. One end of the earth wire is buried deep in the earth; the other end of the
wire is connected to the three-pin socket. When the electrical appliance is switched on, the metal casing of the
appliance will remain at zero potential as it is in contact with the earth wire in the three-pin socket. It thus prevents
us from having an electric shock even if we touch it accidentally.
Electric fuses are always connected in series in an electric circuit. Why?
When the circuit current exceeds a specified value due to voltage fluctuations or short-circuiting, the fuse wire gets
heated and melts. Thus, it breaks the connection as shown in the figure and no current flows. This prevents damage to the
appliance.
Textual Questions:
Q1: Why does a compass needle get deflected when brought near a bar magnet?
Ans: The magnetic field of the magnet exerts force on both the poles of the compass needle. The forces experienced by
the two poles are equal and opposite. These two forces form a couple which deflects the compass needle.
Q2: Draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.

Q3: List the properties of magnetic lines of force.

Ans: Properties of magnetic lines of force are:
 The magnetic field lines originate from the north pole of a
magnet and end at its south pole.
 The magnetic field lines become closer to each other near the poles of a magnet, but they are widely separated at
other places.
 Two magnetic field lines do not intersect one another.
Q4: Why don‟t two magnetic lines of force intersect each other?
Ans: This is due to the fact that the resultant force on a north pole at any
point can be only in one direction. But if the two magnetic field lines
intersect one another, then the resultant force on north-pole placed at the
point of intersection will be along two directions, which is not possible.
Q5: Consider a circular loop of wire lying on the plane of the table. Let
the current pass through the loop clockwise. Apply the right-hand rule
to find out the direction of the magnetic field inside and outside the loop.
Ans: As shown in figure alongside, each section of wire produces its
concentric set of lines of force. By applying right hand thumb rule, we find
that all the sections produce magnetic field downwards at all points inside
the loop while at the outside points, the field is directed upwards. Therefore,
the magnetic field acts normally into the plane of the paper at the points
inside the loop and normally out of the plane of paper at points outside the
loop.
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 Q6: The magnetic field in each region is uniform. Draw a diagram to represent it.
Ans: A uniform magnetic field in a region is represented by drawing parallel straight lines, ail pointing in the same
direction. For example, the uniform magnetic field which exists inside a current-carrying solenoid can be represented
by parallel straight lines pointing from its S-pole to N-pole (as shown in figure).
Q7: Choose the correct option.
The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid-carrying current
i) is zero
ii) decreases as we move towards its end
iii) increases as we move towards its end
iv) is the same at all points
Ans:
iv) Is the same at all points.
Q8: Which of the following properties of a proton can change while it moves freely in a magnetic field. (There
may be more than one correct answer).
i) Mass ii) Speed iii) Velocity iv) Momentum
Ans: The correct options are iii) velocity, iv) momentum.
Q9: In Activity 13.7 how do we think the displacement of rod AB will be affected if
i) current in rod AB is increased
ii) a stronger horse-shoe magnet is used; and
iii) length of the rod AB is increased?
Ans: i) When the current in the rod AB is increased, the force exerted on the conductor increases, so the displacement
of the rod increases.
ii) When a stronger horse-shoe magnet is used, the magnitude of the magnetic field increases. This increases the force
exerted on the rod and the displacement of the rod.
iii) When the length of the rod AB is increased, force exerted on the conductor increases, so the displacement of the
rod increases.
Q10: A positively charged particle (alpha particle) projected towards west is deflected towards north by a
magnetic field.
The direction of magnetic field is:
i) towards south ii) towards east iii) downward iv) upward
Ans: iv) Upward.
Here, the positively charged alpha particles are moving towards west, so the direction of current is towards east. The
deflection is towards north, so the force is towards north, so, we are given that
i) direction of current is towards west
ii) direction of force is towards north.
Let us now hold the forefinger, middle finger and thumb of our left-hand at right angles to one another. Adjust the hand
in such a way that our mid finger points towards west (in the direction of current) and thumb points towards north (in
the direction of force). Now, if we look at our forefinger, it will be pointing upward. Because the direction of
forefinger gives the direction of magnetic field, therefore, the magnetic field is in the upward direction.
Q11: State Fleming‟s left-hand rule.
Ans: Fleming‟s left-hand rule: Stretch the first finger, the middle finger and
the thumb of your left hand mutually perpendicular to each other in such a
way that the first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the
middle finger represents the direction of the current in the conductor, then the
thumb will represent the direction of motion of the conductor.
Q12: What is the principle of an electric motor?
Ans: A motor works on the principle of magnetic effect of current. When a
rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, a
force acts on the coil which rotates it continuously.
When the coil rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates. In this way the
electrical energy supplied to the motor is converted into the mechanical energy of rotation.
Q13: What is the role of the split ring in an electric motor?
Ans: The split ring reverses the direction of current in the armature coil after every half rotation, i.e., it acts as a
commutator. The reversed current reverses the direction of the forces acting on the two arms of the armature after
every half rotation. This allows the armature coil to rotate continuously in the same direction.
Q14: Explain different ways to induce current in a coil.
Ans: Different ways to induce current in a coil are:
1. moving a magnet towards or away from the coil or vice-versa, and
2. changing current in the neighbouring coil.
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 Q15: Name some sources of direct current.
Ans: Some of the sources of direct current are dry cells, button cells, lead accumulators.
Q16: Which sources produce alternating current?
Ans: Alternating current is produced by AC generators of nuclear power plants, thermal power plants, hydroelectric
power stations, etc.
Q17: Name two safety measures commonly used in electric circuits and appliances.
Ans:(i) Earthing and (ii) Electric fuse.
Q18: An electric oven of 2 kW power rating is operated in a domestic electric circuit (220 V) that has a current
rating of 5 A. What result do you expect? Explain.
Ans: The electric oven draws a current given by

Q19: Thus, the electric oven draws current much more than the current rating 5 A. That is the circuit is
overloaded. Due to excessive current, the fuse wire will blow and the circuit will break.
What precautions should be taken to avoid the overloading of domestic electric circuits?
Ans: To avoid the overloading of domestic electric circuits, the following precautions should be taken:
i) The wires used in the circuit must be coated with good insulating materials like PVC, etc.
ii) The circuit must be divided into different sections and a safety fuse must be used in each section.
iii) High power appliances like air-conditioner, refrigerator, a water heater, etc. should not be used simultaneously.

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