MACHAKOS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME:

BSc. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT:

EMM217: PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

LECTURER:

MR JOHNSON NGUGI

AUGUST, 2021
 LECTURE ONE

Lecture overview

In this lesson, we shall define engineering design and briefly look at the range of knowledge and
skills that make an engineering designer. Secondly, we shall consider three levels of difficulty
that an engineering design project. Finally, we shall discuss in detail the 6 steps of the engineering
design process

This lecture covers:

(i) Lecture objectives

(ii) Lecture notes: The Engineering Design Process
(iii) Summary of the lecture
(iv) Suggestions for further reading

Lecture Objectives

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

(i) Define engineering design

(ii) Distinguish between science and engineering
(iii) Discuss the range of knowledge and skills needed to become a mechanical design
engineer
(iv) Differentiate between adaptive, developmental and new designs.
(v) Demonstrate knowledge of the engineering design process
 1. THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
1.1. Introduction

Mechanical engineering design is the process of devising a mechanical system, component, or

process to meet desired needs. It is a step-by-step process in which engineers apply knowledge and
skills gained in mathematics and engineering sciences to optimally convert resources to meet a stated
objective. In fact, the entire mechanical engineering curriculum is systemically designed to impart
learners with this knowledge and skills which may be summarised as follows:

(i) Knowledge of mathematics: Mathematics is the language of engineering. Most

engineering subjects are heavily built on mathematical concepts. In design, sound
knowledge of mathematics is crucial in the design and analysis of engineering systems,
components and processes.
(ii) Knowledge of materials science: A good understanding of materials science is key for
two reasons ways. First, there are thousands of engineering materials available to design
engineers. This knowledge will help engineers to narrow down and select suitable
materials for their design based on their properties and service requirements. Secondly, it
will help them select the right manufacturing process or technique to fabricate their
designs to the final product.
(iii) Knowledge of the mechanics of machines: The knowledge of this subject is very essential
for an engineer in the design of various parts of a machine.
(iv) Knowledge of the mechanics of fluids: Fluid mechanics helps engineers to understand the
behaviour of fluid under various forces and at different atmospheric conditions, to select
the proper fluid for various applications and to design machines that are operated by fluids
such as pumps, power plants and turbines.
(v) Knowledge of the mechanics of solids: The concept of solid mechanics provides the
analytical methods of designing solid engineering systems with adequate strength,
stiffness, stability, and integrity.
(vi) Knowledge of engineering thermodynamics: The laws and concepts of thermodynamics
are crucial in the design and analysis of engineering systems that use or produce energy
such as vehicle engines, power plants, air conditioners, refrigerators etc.
 (vii) Knowledge of project management: Successful engineering design projects require both
technical and non-technical skills. Project management skills are crucial in planning and
managing engineering projects.
(viii) Knowledge of economics: Fundamentally, engineers are builders, designers and creators.
The goal is to sell their products to the public. The goods (products) and services that are
provided are governed by the market (economy). Therefore, having a sound
understanding of how the economy works is critical to the success of an engineer.
(ix) Knowledge of electronics: Many mechanical systems use electricity and are operated and
controlled by electrical circuits. Therefore, some basic knowledge of electronics is crucial
in design.
(x) Knowledge of workshop practice and processes: Practical experience is needed to make
engineering products. Workshop practice will impart an engineering student with relevant
practical skills needed to fabricate engineering products.

1.2. Levels of Engineering Design

There are different degrees or levels of difficulty in all human activities. In Engineering design, the
level of difficulty can be categorized into three, namely: adaptive design, developed design, and new
design.

(a) Adaptive design: In the great majority of instances, the designer’s work will be concerned
with the adaptation of existing designs. There are branches of manufacturing in which
development has practically ceased, so that there is hardly anything left for the designer to
do except make minor modifications, usually in the dimensions of the product. The design
activity of this kind demands no special knowledge or skill, and the problems presented are
easily solved by a designer with ordinary technical training. One such example can be the
elevator, which has remained the same technically and conceptually for some time now.
Another example is a washing machine. This has been based on the same conceptual design
for the last several years and varies in only a few parameters, such as its dimensions,
materials, and detailed power specifications.
(b) Development design: Considerably more scientific training and design ability are needed for
development design. The designer starts from an existing design, but the final outcome may
differ markedly from the initial product. Examples of this development could be from a
 manual gearbox in a car to an automatic one and from the traditional CRT television to the
modern plasma and LCD versions.
(c) New design: Only a small number of designs are new designs. This is possibly the most
difficult level in that generating a new concept involves mastering all the previous skills in
addition to creativity and imagination, insight, and foresight. Examples of this are the design
of the first automobile, aeroplane, or even the wheel. Try to think of entirely new designs
which have been introduced over the last decade.

1.3. The Engineering Design Process

Aerospace engineer Theodore von Karmen summed up the difference between science and
engineering when he said, “Scientists discover the world that exists; engineers create the world that
never was.” Although science and engineering share some common features, there is a difference
between the two. The traditional “scientific method” is not used in engineering design; instead, an
engineering design process is used. Although there is some overlap between the two, they are distinct
processes.

There are several different versions of the engineering design process in use today the choice of
which depends on the product being made. What we shall discuss in this course is a 6-step process
shown in Figure 1.1 that starts with the identification of a need and ends with the presentation of
the final design. This process may be adopted regardless of the level of difficulty of the design in
focus. Note that the process is highly iterative (involves going back and forth between steps).
 Figure 1.1: The design process

In the next several subsections, we shall examine these steps in the design process in detail.

(a) Identification of a need

Identification of a need is the recognition of a need/problem in society that may require an

engineering solution.

Much of the greatest technological advancements that we enjoy today are simply ancient
inventions that have been refined over time. These inventions started as ideas in the minds of
people who set out to solve the biggest challenges of their day.

Some of them include:

(i) The wheel: Invented in Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, the wheel made human travel and
transportation of goods more efficiently than ever before.
(ii) The steam engine whose invention kickstarted the Industrial Revolution in the 18th
Century. The steam engine was used to pump water out of rivers, in locomotives to
power trains, and to run industrial machines.
(iii) Electricity which opened up humanity to a whole new world and revolutionized the way
 we live and work.
(iv) The transistor which forms the basis of computer technology and all electronic devices.
(v) Airplanes that made it possible to transverse large distances in a very short time.
(vi) The telephone which revolutionized our ability to communicate.

In some cases, recognition of a need may be triggered by particular adverse circumstances. For
example, the Dutch build dykes in response to perennial flooding and ultimately developed the
technology required to reclaim land from the sea.

Although engineers have thus far provided solutions to some of humanity biggest problems, there
are still grand challenges that await solutions. Examples include:

(i) In the last couple of decades, we have realised that our use of fossil fuels is releasing
billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide (a key greenhouse gas) into the atmosphere which
is warming our planet. Climate change models predict catastrophic weather events
such as floods, hurricanes and droughts in the near future if things do not change.
Although several solutions such as solar and wind power, carbon capture technologies
have been developed, more innovative solutions are required if fossil fuels are to be
phased out completely.
(ii) The Earth is a planet of finite resources, and its population grows, agricultural land is
becoming a scarce resource. There is a need for innovation in agriculture to optimise
the productivity of available land.

In general, the problem or need must be identified and clearly stated as it will inform the rest of the
design process and defines how success will be measured.

(b) Definition of the problem

Once a need is identified, it needs to be defined or specified in terms of design requirements and
constraints. Asking yourself the following questions may guide this step.

(i) What background information do I need before I can start developing possible solutions
to the problem? What sources do we need to obtain that information, and how reliable
are those sources?
The answer to this question will depend on whether you are embarking on an adaptive,
developmental, or completely new design. There will be plenty of sources to peruse through if the
design is adaptive or developmental. This is because previous work has been done in those types of
design. If the design is completely new designs, the background information will be limited.

(ii) What resources do I need to build this design?

Here you need to identify and list every part or component that will be needed to build the design.
Moreover, you need to select suitable materials that will be used to make the parts and which
manufacturing processes will be used to fabricate the part. For instance, if you are designing a water
pump, you will need a casing (housing), a thrust bearing, a radial bearing, a mechanical seal, an
impeller and a shaft. These parts of a water pump as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Parts of a water pump.

(iii) What will be its capacity, size (or dimensions)?

Sticking to the example of the pump, its capacity or size will depend mainly on two factors: the
discharge (how much water per unit time is required to be pumped), and the head (the height
difference between the source and the storage tank).

(iv) What are the design constraints?

Design constraints are the limitations imposed on the designer’s freedom to design. They narrow
the choices and flexibility of the designer and he/she is forced to operate under them. Examples
include:

Economic constraints: More often than not, there is a limit to the amount of money availed to a
designer for a particular project. He/she must work within the budget. Moreover, the design product
will also need to be affordable to the target market. A product that is too costly may have no buyers.
For instance, engineers could probably design a car that could withstand any collision and protect
its occupants from injury, but it would be so expensive that nobody could afford to buy the car.

Time constraints: Design projects have timelines and design engineers must finish them within the
stipulated period. For instance, a client may approach a designer for a project that needs to be
completed in 7 days. To meet this timeline, the designer may have to work through the weekend.

Compliance constraints: Depending on the project, there may be laws, standards, or regulations that
designers must adhere to. For example, packaging and label requirements may impact the size and
shape of the design.

Availability constraints: A designer may be forced to work with parts, components, or materials
that are available rather than he/she actually wants. For instance, a local designer may select an
alloy of titanium as the suitable material for his design. However, that alloy may not be locally
available. Therefore, the designer will be forced to look for an alternative.

Environmental constraints: Environmental constraints may manifest in two ways. First is the nature
of the environment in which the final design product will be used which will impact the material
selection process of the design. For example, if you are designing a boat, you have to select
corrosion-resistant materials or coat or paint the parts that will come into contact with water. The
second thing to consider is the impact that your design will have on the environment. For instance,
using a diesel engine to power your boat will emit carbon dioxide and contribute to climate change.
An alternative may be to design a solar-powered boat.

Ergonomic constraints: Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding
of the interactions among humans and other elements of a system. The design must be made to fit
the users and not the other way round.
 (c) Design Synthesis

This is also called the conceptual stage. At this point, the designer has reviewed the relevant
background information and done market research. And it is on the basis of this information that
she/he can brainstorm possible solutions that can meet the stated objectives. This activity usually
requires free-hand sketching for producing a series of alternative solutions. The sketches can then be
3D-modeled using suitable computer-aided design software for the analysis stage. The alternatives
do not need to be worked out in detail. They just need to be testable.

For example, Ugali is a staple food in Kenya but we still use a pot and a stick to prepare it. In this
case, a design need may be to design a high capacity automatic or semi-automatic Ugali cooker to
be used in schools or restaurants where large amounts of Ugali are needed and the conventional way
of preparing it is strenuous.

Possible design solutions may be to vary the mode of heating. You could come up with 4 design
schemes (an electric ugali cooker, a firewood ugali cooker, a charcoal ugali cooker and a gas ugali
cooker) each of which will need to be analysed.

(d) Analysis and Optimization

This is where the possible solutions (schemes) generated at the synthesis stage are analysed to
assess whether they meet the design requirements.

First, the pros and cons of each design scheme are highlighted and discussed. Secondly, simulation
and modeling software (such as MATLAB or ANSYS) may be used to characterise their
performance and measure them against the defined performance objectives. The following criteria
may be followed to analyse the schemes:

(i) Functional analysis: This part determines whether the given design solution will function
as intended. Functional analysis is fundamental to the evaluation and success of all
designs. A design solution that does not function properly is a failure even if it meets all
other criteria. Consider for example the invention of the ballpoint pen. This common
instrument was first invented and manufactured during World War II. The ballpoint pen
was supposed to solve the problems of refilling and messiness inherent to the fountain
 pen. Unfortunately, this new design was never assessed for functionality for quite a while.
As a result, it had three shortcomings. First, it could only work in a vertical upright position
since ink flow to the rollerball depended on gravity. Second, ink flow was inconsistent:
sometimes it flowed too heavily, leaving smudgy blotches on the paper; other times the
flow was too light and the markings were unreadable. Third, the ballpoint pens tended to
leak around the ball, ruining people's clothes. It was not until 1950 that the ballpoint pen
became a practical writing instrument after an elastic ink (which flowed over the ball
through smooth capillary action) was developed and the pen reengineered.
(ii) Ergonomics: Ergonomics is the human factor in engineering. It is the study of how people
interact with machines. Most products have to work with people in some manner. People
occupy a space in or around the design, and they may provide a source of power or control
or act as a sensor for the design. For example, people sense if an automobile air-
conditioning system is maintaining a comfortable temperature inside the car. These factors
form the basis for human factors, or ergonomics, of a design. A design solution can be
considered successful if the design fits the people using it. The handle of a power tool
must fit the hand of everybody using it. The tool must not be too heavy or cumbersome to
be manipulated by all sizes of people using the tool. The geometric properties of people –
their weight, height, reach, circumference, and so on – are called anthropometric data. The
difficulty in designing for ergonomics is the abundance of anthropometric data which has
to be considered.
(iii) Product safety and liability: The primary consideration for safety in product design is to
assure that the use of the design does not cause injury to humans. Safety and product
liability issues, however, can also extend beyond human injury to include property damage
and environmental damage from the use of your design. Engineers must also consider the
issues of safety in design because of liability arising from the use of an unsafe product.
Liability refers to the manufacturer of a machine or product being liable, or financially
responsible, for any injury or damage resulting from the use of an unsafe product.

The only way to assure that your design will not cause injury or loss is to design safety
into the product. You can design a safe product in three ways. The first method is to design
safety directly into the product. Ask yourself, "Is there any probability of injury during the
normal use and during failure of your design?" For instance, several safety mechanisms
are built into modern vehicles like the anti-lock braking system (ABS) which provided for
safe breaking during emergencies, adaptive headlights, traction control and so on.

Secondly, since it may be possible to build safety into some products such as rotary
machines, you design for safety. This can be achieved by providing adequate protection
for users of the product. Protection devices include safety shields placed around moving
and rotating parts, crash protective structures used in vehicles such as airbags, and "kill"
switches that automatically turn a machine off (or on) if there is potential for human injury.

The third method used in considering safety is the use of warning labels describing
inherent dangers in the product. Although this method does not implement safety in
design, it is primarily used as a way to shift the responsibility to the consumer for having
ignored the safety guidelines in using the product. In most cases, however, a warning label
will not protect you from liability. Protective shields or other devices must be included in
the design.

A product liability suit may be the result of a personal injury due to the operation of a
particular product. The manufacturer and designer of a device can be found liable to
compensate a worker for losses incurred during the operation or use of their product.
During a product liability trial, the plaintiff attempts to show that the designer and
manufacturer of a product are negligent in allowing the product to be put on the market.
The plaintiff's attorney may bring charges of negligence against the designer.

To protect themselves in a product liability trial, engineers must use state-of-the-art design
procedures during the design process. Safety considerations must be included in the
criteria for all design solutions. They must also perform quality controls of their products
during production. The designer must also foresee other ways people could use the
product. If a person uses a vacuum cleaner to remove a fuel spill, is the designer
responsible when the vacuum catches fire? The courts can decide that a design is poor if
the engineer did not foresee improper use of the product. It is imperative that you evaluate
all of your alternative solutions against safety considerations. Reject or modify any unsafe
elements of your design at this stage in the design process.
(iv) Economic and market analysis: The net result or purpose of most engineering designs is
to produce a product that generates a profit for the company. Obviously, each alternative
design has to be evaluated against criteria such as sales features, potential market, cost of
manufacturing, advertising, and so on. Large companies often conduct marketing surveys
to obtain a measure of what the public will buy. These surveys may be conducted by
telephone interviews with randomly selected people, or they may be personal interviews
conducted with potential users of a product. Our society is based on economics and
competition. Many good ideas never get into production because the manufacturing costs
exceed what people will pay for the product. Market analysis involves applying principles
of probability and statistics to determine if the response of a selected group of people
represents the opinion of society as a whole. Even with a good marketing survey,
manufacturers never know for certain if a new product will sell.
(v) Mechanical/Strength analysis: Engineering analysis of a preliminary design often include
the analysis of its mechanical features. The engineer conducts mechanical analysis to
answer questions such as, "Will the device or structure support the maximum loads that it
will be subjected to?" You must also determine the effect of shocks and repetitive or
dynamic loading over the life of the product. Many systems generate heat, so you need to
determine if the design can dissipate all of the heat being generated during normal
operation. Thermal analysis is an area important to the design of electronic equipment.
Many pieces of electronic equipment fail prematurely due to inadequate heat transfer. For
example, the early releases of Intel's Pentium microprocessor could not operate at their
rated speed due to overheating. The production of this microcircuit was delayed while
engineers figured out ways to dissipate the excess heat. You need to perform strength
calculations to determine whether the design alternative will be able to support the
specified mechanical loads. As a mechanical system is subjected to applied loads, it will
deform or deflect. Many products contain several subsystems and, quite often, the analysis
is done on each of the subsystems rather than the complete product itself.

Schemes that do not meet the performance objectives may be revised or discarded. Those that
show potential are optimised (improved) to determine the best possible performance that they are
capable of.
Analysis and optimization are highly iterative processes and are repeated until consensus is
reached on the best possible solution to pursue. It is possible to end up with more than one viable
solution at the end of this stage.

(e) Evaluation

Whereas analysis and optimization will help identify the best possible solutions, the best way to
evaluate a solution is to actually build it and test it. Building and testing will either confirm or
contradict the performance characteristics obtained at the analysis stage. A model or prototype
may be build depending on the nature of the design. A model is a small-scale representation of
the proposed solution that is not necessarily fully functional. It is usually built to test some aspect
of the design or for demonstration purposes.

For instance, models of new aircraft designs are often built and tested in wind tunnels to assess
their flight characteristics before prototypes are built to test other performance characteristics.
Wind tunnels are basically large tubes with air moving inside. Powerful fans are usually used to
move air through the tubes. When aircraft models are placed inside wind tunnels, the air moves
around the wings to produce an aerodynamic lift and cause the model to fly (note that in actual
flying, it is the aircraft that moves against the air).

A model of an aircraft inside a NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) wind
tunnel is shown in Figure 1.2.
 Figure 1.2: An aircraft model in a wind tunnel.

A prototype is a fully functional physical representation of the proposed solution built to scale for
comprehensive testing. It is an implementation of the proposed solution.

The differences between a model and a prototype are highlighted in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: The differences between a model and a prototype

Model Prototype
Partially functional Fully functional, but not fault-proof.
Build to a scale smaller than the proposed Is a full-scale version of the proposed solution
solution
Used for limited testing, display, and Used for comprehensive performance
demonstration of the proposed solution evaluation and further improvement of
product.
May consist of only the exterior of the Contains complete interior and exterior.
object/product it represents
Relatively cheap to manufacture. Is relatively expensive to produce.

Building a prototype provides feedback on the ease or difficulty of creating the proposed solution
device. Once it is built, a testing protocol is necessary to guide the performance evaluation. A
testing protocol may take the following form:

(i) Does the prototype work?

(ii) Does it satisfy the design and performance objectives?
(iii) Is it reliable or will it experience regular breakdowns?
(iv) Will it compete successfully with similar products in the market?
(v) Is it economical to manufacture and use?
(vi) Can it be easily maintained?
(vii) Can a profit be made from its sale or use?
(viii) How likely is it to result in product-liability lawsuits?
 (ix) Can insurance be easily and cheaply obtained?
(x) Is it likely that recalls will be needed to replace defective parts or systems?

In case the prototype does not work out, it may be necessary to return to the previous step and select
a different solution, and then prototype and test that solution. In general, the engineering design
process rarely yields a complete and final solution with the first prototype. It is more likely that the
design team will take the feedback from the initial testing and revise its solution. Also, the initial
specification for this product will be refined. Then the team prototypes the new solution and tests
it, repeating the process as necessary until an acceptable prototype has been developed. This step is
often the most time-consuming part of the engineering design process, often taking more time than
the other steps combined.

(f) Presentation

Communicating the design to an audience is the final and one of the most important steps in the
engineering design process. Many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to
posterity simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to properly explain their
accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new
solution to an audience is attempting to sell or to prove to them that their solution is a better one.
Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been
largely wasted.

Design engineers can present their designs to diverse audiences which may include:

(a) A board of examiners if the design is a school project, e.g., a final year project
(b) Prospective investors such as venture capitalists and investors when a design engineering is
looking for capital to go into mass production of the idea or scale up their business.
(c) Their employer or management if they have been employed as a design engineer and tasked to
come up with an innovative design solution.
(d) Peers while showcasing their designs in a design conference.
(e) Clients who have contracted the design engineers to make a product for them.
Summary

In this lesson, we defined engineering design as the process of devising a mechanical system,
component, or process to meet desired needs. We proceeded to highlight the range of
knowledge necessary to become a design engineer and finally discussed the engineering design
procedure.

Further Reading

1. Budynas, R. & Nisbett, J.K. (2006). Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
2. Khurmi, RS. & Gupta, J.K. (2014). A Textbook of Machine Design: (S.I. Units). New
Delhi, IN: Eurasia Publishing House.
3. Eggert, R.J. (2004). Engineering Design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
4. Spotts, M.F., Shoup, T.E. & Hornberge, L.E. (2003). Design of Machine Elements (8th
Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.