WAVES

A wave is a disturbance or an oscillation or a vibration

that carries energy through matter from one place to
another without transferring matter itself.
There are two types of waves, namely;
 Longitudinal wave
 Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the
particles is parallel or along the direction of wave
propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate back
and forth along the direction of wave travel.
Compressions and rarefactions are formed. An example
of longitudinal wave is the sound wave.

Transverse wave
It is a wave in which the direction of vibration of the
particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
1
propagation or wave travel. The particles vibrate up and
down, at right angles to the direction of wave travel.
Crests and troughs are formed. Examples of transverse
wave are water waves and light.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WAVES

Amplitude: It is the maximum displacement of a
particle from the undisturbed or rest position. It
is measured in metre, cm, mm, km etc.
Wavelength (λ):
 It is the distance covered by one
complete wave.
 It is also the distance between any two
successive crests or troughs.

2
  It is the distance between the centre of
one rarefaction and the centre of the next
rarefaction
 It is the distance between the centre of
one compression and the centre of the
next compression.
It is measured in metres, cm, mm, km, etc.
Frequency (f): it is the number of complete
waves generated per second. The SI unit of
frequency is the HERTZ (Hz).
Speed / Velocity (v): this is the distance travelled
by a wave per unit time it is measured in m/s,
cm/s, mm/s, etc.
Velocity is given by the relation:
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
v = fλ: This is called the wave equation.
Period (T): this is the time taken to generate one
complete wave. It is measured in seconds (s).
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻 = and 𝒇 = ..
𝒇 𝑻

3
EXERCISE
Study the graph below and answer questions
that follow

Determine:
a. The amplitude

[Link] frequency

4
c. The period of the wave

[Link] speed if the wavelength is 0.5m

5
Wavefronts
These are parallel lines drawn to show the
position of crests of waves. The lines are
either straight for straight waves or circular
for circular waves.

Sound waves
Sound is produced by any vibrating material,
e.g. violin, drums, guitars, vocal chords,
tuning forks, etc. sound is an example of a
longitudinal wave.
Audible frequency or limit of audibility
Human beings can hear things vibrating at
frequencies between 20 Hz and 20000 Hz

6
(20kHz). This range of frequencies is known
as the audible range or limit of audibility.

The lower audible limit (20Hz) increase as

one ages while the upper limit (20kHz)
decreases with age.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies below 20Hz
are called infrasonic sounds or infrasounds.
Sounds vibrating at frequencies above 20
kHz are called ultrasonic sounds or
ultrasounds. Some animals such as dogs,
cats, bats, dolphins, etc. can hear these
frequencies while the human beings cannot.

Some animals like elephants can actually

hear infrasounds and even communicate
infrasonically.

Uses of Ultrasounds

a. Ultrasonic scanners: they are used to

observe the development of the growing
embryo

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 [Link] Sonars (Sound Navigation And
Ranging): they are used to determine the
depth of water bodies (e.g. seas and
oceans). They are also used in mineral
exploration.
c. Echolocation: bats and dolphins use
ultrasounds to navigate their routes. They
also use them to locate their prey and
predators.
[Link]: ultrasonic sounds are used to
clean delicate machinery and street light
covers without necessarily dismantling
them. The machinery is placed in water
containing ultrasonic vibrators and they
vibrate and dislodge dirt in the process.

Speed of sound
Sound has different speeds in different media.
Speed of sound
Medium
(m/s)
Air 330
Water 1500
Steel 6000

Generally, sound travels faster in solids than

liquids and gases.
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DETERMINING THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
1. Echo Method
o Stand a known distance next to a cliff
o Shout into air and simultaneously switch
on the stopwatch
o Upon hearing the echo (reflected sound)
switch off the stopwatch
o Record the time taken by sound to move
from you to the cliff and back.
o Divide the distance by the time
Speed = distance / (Time/2)

s = 2d/t

2. Gun Method
Two experimenters A and B stand a known
distance away from each other.
o Experimenter A fires the gun into air
o When experimenter B sees the spark or
sees the smoke at the tip experimenter
A’s gun he switches on the stopwatch

9
 o When experimenter B hears the sound of
the gun he switches off stopwatch
o The speed of sound in air is then
calculated by dividing the distance by
time
s = d/t

musical notes

Pitch: the pitch of a musical note depends on

the frequency and wavelength. The higher
the frequency, the higher the pitch, and the
lower the frequency the lower the pitch. (the
shorter the wavelength the higher the pitch,
the longer the wavelength the lower the
pitch.
Loudness: the loudness of a musical note
depends on the amplitude. The larger the
amplitude, the higher the loudness, and the
smaller the amplitude the lower the
loudness.

Quality / Timbre: this is how pure a musical

note is. A note of a single frequency is very
pure. The quality of a musical note is
10
affected by multiple reflections
(reverberations) and multiple frequencies
(overtones).

Acoustics: these are the characteristics of a

building in relation to sound. Old halls and
cathedrals are poorly designed and have
multiple reflections. This affects their
acoustics. To improve acoustics of a
building, use sound absorbing material like
carpeting the floor, putting curtains, using
soft seats, etc.

11
 Light
REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from
medium to another. Light bends because it changes
speed. Light travels at different speeds in different
media. E. g. speed of light in air or vacuum is 3x108
m/s while in glass it is only 2x108 m/s.
Experiment
Aim: To study refraction in glass
Apparatus: rectangular glass block, raybox, plain
sheet of paper, drawing board, drawing pins, power
supply

Procedure:
a. Place the glass block at the centre of the plain
sheet of paper
b. Draw the outline of the glass block (A,B,C,D)
c. Make a ray of light incident at an angle to the
normal i.e. 30o and mark two positions on the
emergent ray on the CD side of the block
d. Remove the glass block and draw a line
joining the points
e. Draw a normal to the line and measure the
angles

12
 Observations
a. When a ray of light leaves a less dense
medium and enters a more denser medium it
is refracted towards the normal.
b. When a ray of light leaves a more denser
medium and enters a less dense medium it is
refracted away from the normal.
c. A ray of light incident along the normal is not
refracted
d. The incident ray and the emergent ray are
parallel for a parallel-sided glass prism.
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)
It is defined by the formula:
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒏=
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
e.g. for glass it is:
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎/𝒔
𝒏=
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎/𝒔
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 n = 1.5
NB: it does not have units because it is a ratio.
Refractive index is also given by the relation:
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒊)
𝒏=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒓)

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
From the experiment, i = 30°, r = 20°
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎
𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝟎

n = 1.46

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

Objects under transparent media such as water,
paraffin, glass, etc. normally appear to be shallower
than they actually are. This is because rays of light
bend away from the normal when they leave a more
dense medium. The eye traces the rays back to a
virtual image which is shallower than the real object.
The shallower depth is called the apparent depth while
the actual or real depth is called the real depth.
14
The refractive index can also be calculated as:
𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝒏=
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
Fish in Pond

REFRACTION OF WATER WAVES

Water waves more slowly in shallow waters than in
deep water. This is because the speed of the water
waves decreases as water waves moves from deep
to shallow water. The speed decreases because the
wavelength decreases while the frequency remains
the same.
If the waves are incident perpendicular to a
boundary, the refracted waves in shallow water do
not change direction.
15
 If the waves are incident at an angle to the
boundary, the waves are refracted at an angle

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

CRITICAL ANGLE
This is the angle of incidence which gives an angle of
refraction of 90°. When it is exceeded, a ray of light
undergoes total internal reflection.
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To study total internal reflection in glass

16
APPARATUS: semi-circular glass prism, raybox, plain
paper, power supply
PROCEDURE:
a. Place a semi-circular glass prism at the centre of
the blank sheet of paper
b. Draw its outline AOBN, where O is the centre ON
is the normal on the AB side
c. Make a ray of light incident at an angle, say 30°, to
the normal towards the centre O

OBSERVATIONS
a. When the angle of incidence (i) is less than the
critical angle (c), [𝒊 <c],

17
 Two rays are observed: A feint reflected ray and a
refracted ray

b. When the angle of incidence (i) is equals to the

critical angle (c), [𝒊 = 𝒄],

18
 Two rays are observed: a reflected ray and a
refracted ray perpendicular to the normal

c. When the angle of incidence (i) is greater than the

critical angle (c), [i>c],

One ray is observed: only one reflected ray is

observed. The ray is said to have undergone total
internal reflection

For the critical angle, the refractive index is given

as:
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎
𝒏=
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝑪
But Sin 90º = 1
𝟏
𝒏=
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝑪

𝟏
C = sin-1(𝒏)

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APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL
REFLECTION
MIRAGES.
They are common in hot days and desserts. They
look like a pool of water on a long stretch of road.
This is caused by the hot layers of air near the
surface and the cooler and denser layers of air
higher up.
A ray of light from the sun is gradually refracted
away from the normal as it passes a dense layer
of air near the ground to a less dense layer.
Eventually it meets a hot layer near the ground at
an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle and suffers total internal reflection.
The eye sees the ray to be coming from an image
which looks like a puddle of water on the road.

20
USES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
a. PERISCOPE
A periscope gives a better picture than plane
mirrors because it does not undergo multiple
reflections.

b. Endoscope
They are thin flexible glass rods which channel
a ray of light by total internal reflection to see
the internal organs of the body.

21
c. Reflectors
The rear reflectors on cars, bicycles and along
roadside contain lots of tiny prisms. These use
total internal reflection to send light back in the
opposite direction

d. Crystals
They sparkle because they trap light inside by
total internal reflection

e. Communications
Speech and other electronic messages can be
converted to light and other electromagnetic
impulses and then transmitted along optical

22
fibres e.g. in telescopes. Optical fibres have
several advantages over copper wires:
 They carry signals over long distances
without need for amplification
 They are not disrupted by landmasses like
microwaves
 Disturbed signals can be easily restored to
their original quality unlike electrical
signals.

23
LENSES
They are commonly used in optical instruments. They are of
two types.

 Concave
 Convex
CONCAVE LENS
It is thinner at the centre and causes parallel rays of light to
diverge hence it is sometimes referred to as the DIVERGING
LENS. It forms a virtual image which is diminished and behind
the lens

CONVEX LENS
It is thicker at the centre and causes parallel rays of light to
converge hence it is sometimes referred to as the
CONVERGING LENS. It forms a real image which is smaller or
large in front of the lens

24
TERMINOLOGIES
The optical centre of a lens L is the point midway between the
lens surfaces on its principal axis. Rays passing through the
optical centre are not deviated.
The principal axis of a lens is the line passing through the
optical centre which is perpendicular to the lens.
The principal focus OR Focal Point F of a converging lens is the
point to which all rays incident parallel to the principal axis
converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.
The principal focus OR Focal Point F of a diverging lens is the
point from which all rays incident parallel to the principal axis
appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is
virtual.
The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical
centre and the principal focus.

25
NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the
lens. When drawing ray diagrams the principal focus F is
marked on both side of the principal axis.
DETERMINING THE FOCAL POINT

 Focus a distant object e.g. a window on the screen using

a convex lens. Since parallel rays of light from a distant
object are parallel to each other, the distance between
the lens and the image (screen) would approximately be
the focal length of the lens.
When the focal length is known, the following three (3) rays
can be drawn:
a. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis (F) which is
refracted through the first principal focus

b. A ray of light that passes through the optical centre and is

not refracted

26
 c. A ray of light that passes through the first principal axis
and is refracted parallel to the principal axis

ALL RAYS COMBINED

CHARACTERISTICS
NB:
 For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the
object. In reality rays are from different points on the
object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through
the middle of the lens. In reality, bending takes place at
each surface.
Images formed by converging lens
a. Object beyond 2F
b. Object at 2F
c. Object between F and 2F
d. Object at F
e. Object between F and the lens`
27
Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

a) o between F
and L
i) virtual
ii)erect
i)magnifying
iii)magnified
glass
iv)on same
ii)instrument
side of lens
eye piece
as O and
iii)Spectacles further
correction for away
long-

28
sightedness

b) O at F

Produces a
parallel beam of
At infinity
light as in a spot
light with lamp
at O.

c) O between F i) real
and 2F
ii) inverted
iii)
i) projector magnified
ii) microscope iv) on
objective lens opposite
side of lens
to O,
beyond 2F.

29
 i) real
d) O at 2F ii) inverted
iii) Same
size as O.
Camera making
equal size iv) on
copies opposite
side of the
lens to O, at
2F.

e) O beyond 2F i) real
ii) inverted
i) camera iii)
diminished
ii) the eye
iv) on
opposite
side of lens,
between F
and 2F.
This is
diagram c)
reversed.

30
f) O at infinity i) real
ii) inverted
Objective lens iii)
of a telescope. diminished
iv) on
opposite
side of lens
at F.
This is
diagram b)
reversed

31
MAGNIFICATION (M)
Magnification is the ratio of the size (height) of image to the
size (height) of object?
size of image
magnification 
size of object

Linear magnification can have a value less 1 when the image is

diminished, equal to 1 when the object and image are the
same size or greater than 1 when the image is magnified.

Uses of lenses
1. Correction of eyesight
2. Microscope, telescope
3. Camera
4. Projector
THE LENS CAMERA
A camera consists of a light tight box with a converging lens at
one end and a film at the other end. The lens focuses a
diminished, real and upside-down image on the film. i.e the
object has to be beyond 2F.
OPERATING A CAMERA.
i. Focusing
A camera is focused by moving the lens back or forth. If
the object moves nearer to the lens, the image moves

32
 beyond the film, so to keep the image in focus in the
film, the lens is moved away from the film.
ii. Shutter
The amount of light entering a camera can be
controlled by the amount of time that the shutter is
opened. Fast moving objects require short exposures
(e.g. 1/500 seconds)
iii. Aperture / Stop
The size of the hole of the diaphragm is varied to control
the amount of light entering a camera. E.g. taking a
photograph in a bright light the hole is smaller.
iv. Film
The film is coated with photosensitive chemicals
(sensitive to light).the chemicals are changed to an
image by the light. The film is developed into a
negative from which a photograph is made by printing.

33
THE PROJECTOR
The projector forms a real image on the screen. The image is
larger than the object and also further away from the lens.
HOW IT WORKS
Light is directed towards the film by means of a concave
mirror and a condenser system. The image is focused on a
screen by a convex lens which can be adjusted for better
focusing of the picture. The film has to be inverted.

34
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. They are formed
when magnetic and electric fields cut at right angles to each
other.
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 They are all transverse waves,
 They all travel at the speed of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s),
 They all travel in a vacuum and other media,
 They all obey the wave equation (c = fλ),
 They transfer energy from one place to another.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES SUMMARY

Nam Origin Source Detectio Propertie Uses

e of n s
Wave

Energy Radioacti Geiger- Most Examining

changes ve Müller penetrati materials
in the sources tube, ve, can for faults in
nuclei e.g. photogra penetrat industry,
Gam of uranium phic film e solids, sterilizing
ma atoms cause cell medical
ray mutation equipment
, can and food
destroy
body
cells
High X-ray photogra Can Radiograph
energy tube phic film affect a y,
changes photogra treatment
35
X-ray in the phic film, of cancer,
electro can inspecting
n penetrat metal
structur e solids, castings
e of an can cause and welded
atom cancer joints for
faults

Fairly Sun, photogra Make Sterilizing

high sparks, phic film fluoresce materials,
energy mercury nt helps the
Ultra changes lamps, substanc body
violet in the very hot es glow, manufactur
electro bodies causes e vitamin
n etc. sun tan, D, used for
structur can detective
e of damage work in
atoms eyes forensic
science

Energy Sun, photogra Can Used in the

changes flames, phic film affect a operation
Visibl in the objects photogra of optical
e electro above phic film, instrument
light n red-hot causes s, vision,
structur temperat sensation etc.
e of an ures of sight
atom
Low All bodies photogra Has a Treating
energy above the phic film warming muscle
changes absolute effect, complaints,
36
Infra- in the temperat found dry car
red electro ure beyond paint
n the during
structur visible manufactur
e of red e, taking
atoms colour of pictures in
the darkness
spectrum
Electro Radio Radio Snhort Radio
nic transmitti receiving waveleng communica
oscillati ng aerials signals th radio tion,
Radio ons in waves cooking in
wave electric have a microwave
s circuits warming ovens.
effect
when
absorbed
, long
waveleng
th radio
waves
can be
reflected
by the
ionosphe
re

37
38