Chapter 1:
Computer System Overview
Define the basic IPO (Input-Process-Output) cycle.
Name the two main components of the CPU.
What is the difference between Primary and Secondary memory?
Give two examples of specialized output devices.
What is the role of an Operating System?
Define "System Software" with one example.
What is the function of a Control Unit?
Name two types of ROM.
What does the term "Hardware" refer to?
Differentiate between an Interpreter and a Compiler.
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that can accept data as an input, process the data
according to specified rules(Program) on processor & produces information as an
output, and store that information for future use.
The IPO Cycle
The IPO (Input-Process-Output)cycle is the fundamental operating principle of a
computer, defining how data is converted into information
● Input: Data or instructions entered into the system.
● Process: The CPU performs calculations or logical operations on the data.
● Output: The processed data (information) is presented to the user.
Basic components of computer system
Input device is responsible for taking input for the computer.
Output device is responsible for producing output for the computer.
Central processing unit is responsible for processing the data and instructions.
Parts of CPU
1. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT. It is responsible for carrying out the earth matic
instructions like add, subtract, multiply, divide and making logical decisions like greater
than, less than ,equal to.
2. Control unit.
It is responsible for controlling and supervising the processing like Data Flow
Management,Instruction Handling.
Primary memory:- Primary memory is primarily volatile memory because It is known
as main memory (RAM).primary memory is also known as an internal memory where
data and instruction are stored during processing
Secondary memory:- secondary memory is also known as a external non volatile
memory which provide permanent memory to the computer system
Computer organisation
Hardware
The physical components of a computer are called hardware of computer for example,
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer
Hardware can be separated into two part
a. Input device(keywords ,Mouse,Microphone(mic) ,Scanner ,Joystick )
b. Output device( monitors, printers,speakers,Projector ,Plotter)
The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer. For
example,keywords ,Mouse,Microphone(mic) ,Scanner ,Joystick
● Keyboard: keyboard is a typewriter like device which is used to type in letters ,
digits and commands .
● mouse: mouse is a pointing device that controls movement of a pointer on a
screen.
● Microphone: it is an input device used to send sound as an input to the
computer that converts sound into computer’s format.
The output unit is formed by the output devices attached to the computer. For
example monitors, printers,speakers,Projector ,Plotter
(Plotter is a specialized printer that creates high definition images for example print
maps or any blueprint of a building.)
● Monitors monitor are a output devices that used to display the information or
output on a screen
● Printers printers are the devices that deliver information by means of printed
characters on paper
● Speakers speakers receive the sound in the form of electric current from the
soundcart and then convert this sound to audible to the user
The CPU
The CPU is also called a brain of computer as it guide direct control or governed the
performance of computer
The sub component of CPU are
1. Arithmetic logic unit
2. Control unit
3. Register
:-Arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations
:-Control unit act as a supervisor by controlling and guiding the operation
taken place
:-Registers are used to hold temporarily address of file during processing
of data
Main memory, also known as primary memory or internal memory, is a storage area in
a computer that is directly accessible by the CPU. It serves as a high-speed workspace
used to hold the data and instructions that are currently being processed or executed
Memory measurement
1 bit 0 or 1
4 bit 1 nibble
8 bits 1 byte
1024 bytes 1 KB
1024 kilo Byte 1 MB
1024 mega bytes 1 GB
1024 gega bytes 1 TB
1024 tera bytes 1 PB
1024 peta byte 1 EB
1024 exa bytes 1 ZB
1024 zeta byte 1 YB (yota bytes)
Parts of main memory/ primary memory/internal memory
1. RAM
2. ROM
3. Cache memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) is called "random access" because RAM can
access any memory location directly in any order with the same speed . This direct
access makes RAM significantly faster for reading/writing data compared to storage
devices like hard drives.
The drawback of RAM memory is that it is a volatile memory . That is when the power
goes off the content of Ram gets erased.
Types of RAM
There are two main types of RAM used in modern computers:
1. SRAM (STATIC RAM)
2. DRAM (DYNAMIC RAM)
SRAM (STATIC RAM)
1. Faster but more expensive
2. Used for cache memory in CPUs
3. Static Ram are made up of flip flops
4. Memory access speed about 10 Nanoseconds
DRAM (Dynamic RAM):
1. Slower but less expensive than SRAM
2. Used for main memory in computers
3. Dynamic Ram are made up of transistors and capacitors.
4. memory access speed from below 20 to 70 Nano second
The most common type of RAM in modern computers is DDR SDRAM (Double Data
Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM). This technology has evolved through several
generations:
1. DDR2
2. DDR3
3. DDR4
4. DDR5 (the latest standard)
ROM memory stores permanent, essential instructions that a device needs to function
correctly from the moment it is powered on. Because ROM is non-volatile, that means
information remains intact even when there is no.
It has system firmware and boot instructions.
1. Mask ROM (MROM)
The oldest type of ROM, where data is permanently encoded during the manufacturing
process.
Key Feature: It is not possible to alter or erase data once the chip is made.
Common Use: Early computer systems and pre-programmed hardware that requires
no updates.
2. Programmable ROM (PROM)
Manufactured as a blank chip that can be programmed once by a user or manufacturer
using a special tool called a PROM burner.
Key Feature: Once programmed, the data is permanent and cannot be changed.
Common Use: BIOS in older PCs, video game consoles, and remote controls.
3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
A type of PROM that can be reprogrammed multiple times.
Key Feature: Data is erased by exposing the chip to strong ultraviolet (UV) light for
about 20–40 minutes through a transparent quartz window.
Common Use: Used widely in older personal computers and for testing
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
An advanced version that can be erased and rewritten electrically without being
removed from the circuit.
Key Feature: It allows for selective erasure, meaning individual bytes can be modified
rather than clearing the entire chip.
Common Use: Modern computer BIOS updates, USB drives, and SSDs.
3. Cache memory is the high speed memory available inside a CPU in order to speed
up. Access to data instruction is stored in RAM memory
The storage unit
Computers need to store data for processing. Since primary memory has unlimited
storage capacity and it's not permanent. Secondary Storage devices are used to store
large amounts of data permanently. There are various type of secondary devices
available these days.
1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
● Technology: Magnetic storage with circular platters that continually
spinning and read/write heads.
● Capacity: Very high (typically 1 TB to >20 TB).
● Speed: Fast for read/write, but slower than SSD/Flash memory.
2. Flash Memory (USB drives, SSDs)
● Technology: Solid-state electronic, no moving parts.
● Capacity: Medium to high (tens of GBs to 2 TB+ for USBs; SSDs can
be larger).
● Speed: Very fast access times.
3. CD (Compact Disc)
● Technology: Optical storage; lasers read microscopic pits on a plastic
disc.
● Capacity: Low (typically 700 MB).
● Speed: Slow.
4. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
● Technology: Optical storage, similar to CD but higher density.
● Capacity: Medium (typically 4.7 GB single layer, 8.5 GB dual layer).
● Speed: Slow compared to HDD/Flash, but faster than CDs.
5 Blu-ray discs (BD) are high-capacity optical storage media capable of
holding significantly more data than standard DVDs, making them the
primary format for High-Definition (HD) and 4K Ultra HD video playback.
Hardware
The physical components of a computer are called hardware of computer for example,
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer
Hardware can be separated into two part
c. Input device(keywords ,Mouse,Microphone(mic) ,Scanner ,Joystick )
d. Output device( monitors, printers,speakers,Projector ,Plotter)
Software
The set of programs that governs the working of computer system are called software
for example operating system like window, Linux
Software can be classified into a two categories
1. Systems software
2. Application software
System software :- The software that controls internal operations of computer is called
system software.
The system software can further be classified into two categories
1. Operating system
2. Language processor
Operating system
An operating system is a program which act as an interface between user and the
hardware.
There are some major goals of operating system
1. To make the computer system convenient to use.
2. To use computer hardware in an efficient manner.
There are different type of operating system
1. Single user operating system.
2. Multiuser operating system.
3. Distributed operating system.
4. Real time operating system.
5. Multi processing operating system.
Language processor
We write code in human-friendly "high-level" languages, but computers only
understand "low-level" machine code (0s and 1s), the language processor acts as a
translator that takes Source Code as input and converts it into Object Code (machine
language).
(Source code is the original version of a computer program that is written by a human
in a high-level programming language like Java, Python, or C++.
Object code is the translated version of the source code. It is produced after the
compiler processes the source code. It contains the low-level instructions (often in
binary) that the CPU understands. .
)
There are three types of language processors
1. Assembler
2. Compiler
3. Interpreter
Assembler
An assembler is a type of language processor that converts the program written in
assembly language (mnemonic like MOV , ADD)into a machine language.
Interpreter
An interpreter translates and executes the code line-by-line or statement-by-statement
at runtime. It reads a line, converts it to machine code, executes it immediately, and
then moves to the next line.
. Python, JavaScript, Ruby, PHP
Compiler
A compiler translates the entire source code into a machine code file (like an .exe or
.class file) in one go before the program runs . Once compiled, the computer can
execute the output file directly.
C, C++, Rust, Swift.
Application software :-
Application software is a type of computer program designed to help end-users to
perform specific tasks or activities, such as writing a document, browsing the web, or
managing finances. Unlike system software, which manages the computer's internal
hardware and background operations, application software is user-centric and requires
an operating system to function.
Application software can be divided into four categories
1. Packages
2. Utilities
3. Customised software
4. Developer Tools
1. Packages (Packaged Software/Application Suites)
Package Software is also called "off-the-shelf" software, it is designed for a general
audience with common needs. It is ready-made and cannot usually be modified by the
user.
Examples: Microsoft Office (Word, Excel), database management systems, multimedia
and presentation applications
2. Utilities
Utilities are a type of software that is designed to analyze, optimize, or maintain the
computer infrastructure.
Examples: Antivirus (Norton, McAfee), File Compression (WinZip, 7-Zip), Disk
Cleaners/Defragmenters, Password Generators.
3. Customized Software
Customized software is designed specifically for a unique purpose, company, or
department.
Examples: Specialized Banking Systems, Warehouse Management Systems
(WMS), Internal Employee Portals.
4. Developer Tools
Developer tools are software used by developers to create, debug, maintain, and
support other applications.
Examples: IDEs (VS Code, IntelliJ, PyCharm), Version Control (Git, GitHub),
Build Automation (Jenkins, Docker), SQL Management Tools (SQL Sentry).
Software library is programming code in a form of prewritten code/functions/ classes
that can be used in the development of a new software programs and applications.
For example
Python have many software libraries given below
[Link]
[Link] library
3. Scipy