Surveying & Introduction to GIS

Sibgat Mehedi Hasan

Lecture 7

1
Leveling and Contouring
Definition
• Leveling is the process by which the difference in elevation of different points on the
surface of the earth is determined.
• Success of various engineering projects e.g. railways, highways, canals, dams, water supply
and sanitary schemes depends upon accurate determination of elevation
• Leveling is employed to provide an accurate network of heights covering the area of the
project.
• Leveling enables us to know the undulation of the ground along and across the
alignment of a proposed project and determine the amount of earthwork
 Leveling Instruments
[Link]:
a) Dumpy Level, b) Y-Level, c)
Reversible Level, d) Tilting
Level
[Link]
Adjustment Staff
of a Level
Two types of adjustment are required:
a) Temporary Adjustment
1) Setting up the level
2) Leveling up
3) Elimination of parallax
b) Permanent Adjustment
 Definition and Terms
• Station: In leveling, a station is that point where the level rod is held and not where level is set
up. It is the point whose elevation is to be ascertained (Known).
• Level Surface: A level surface may be defined as a curved surface which is parallel to the mean
spherical surface of the earth. The tangent plane at any point of a level surface is perpendicular
to the direction of gravity. The surface of still water in a lake is truly a level surface
• Level Line: A level line is curved line lying in a level surface. It is normal to the plumb line at
all points
 Definition and Terms
• Horizontal Line: it is a straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also perpendicular
to the plumb line
• Vertical Line: it is a straight line normal to the level line at a point. The plumb line at a point is
commonly considered to be the vertical line
• Mean Sea Level: It is the average elevation of the surface of the sea.
• Datum: It is an imaginary level surface with respect to which the heights (or vertical distances)
of different points on the earth’s surface are determined.
 Definition and Terms
• Elevation: The elevation of a point is the vertical distance above or below the datum. The difference in elevations
between two points is the vertical distance between the two points
• Reduced Level (R.L.): The height of a point above or below the assumed datum is known as the reduced level. It
is same as the elevation of the point
• Bench Mark (B.M.): A relatively permanent and fixed reference point of known elevation with respect to the
assumed datum is called the bench mark.
• Height of the Instrument (H.I.): The elevation of the line of sight with respect to the assumed datum is known as
the height of the instrument. It doesn’t mean the height of the telescope above the ground where the level is set up.
 Definition and Terms
• Back, inter and fore reading: In any setup of the leveling instrument, the first staff
reading on a station of known elevation is known as the back reading (B.R.) and the last
staff reading on a station of unknown elevation is termed as fore reading (F.R.). The staff
reading on an intermediate station of unknown elevation is termed as inter reading (I.R.).
–Back sight enables to obtain the height of the instrument.
–Fore and intermediate sights enable to obtain the elevation of a point.

• Change Point (CP) or Turning Point (TP): The point on which both the foresight (minus
sight) and back sight (plus sight) are taken during the operation of leveling is called a CP or
a TP. Two sights are taken from two different instrument stations, a fore sight to ascertain the
elevation of the point while a back sight is taken on the same point to establish the height of
the instrument for the new setting of the level

A P3 P4
C.P. P5
P P2 B
P1 P6
P7 P8
B.M
 Procedure of Leveling Operation
A level is setup between the bench mark A and point B whose
elevation is to be determined. A back sight is taken on the staff
held at A. Then,

H.I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S. Simple Leveling

Turning the telescope towards B, a fore sight (F.S.) is taken at B. Then,
Elevation of B = H.I. - F.S.
Find the elevation of B, given the following data:
• Elevation of BM at A = 210.852 m, B.S. at A = 2.324 m, F.S at B = 1.836
m

P3 P4
A C.P. P5
P P2 B
P1 Leveling Operation P6
P7 P8
B.M
 Procedure of Leveling Operation

The B.M. may be located on the roof of a tunnel or on the ceiling of a room,
which is above the line of sight. In this case, the staff reading is taken with the
staff upside down with its zero at the B.M. The staff reading is subtracted from
the R.L. of the B.M. to get the height of the instrument or the R.L. of the line
of sight

Sometimes the ground may be above the line of sight. In this case, negative
staff reading is taken with the staff upside down with its zero at the ground.
The negative staff reading is added to the R.L. of the line of sight to obtain the
R.L. of the ground point.
Staff Rod in leveling
Rise and Fall Method
In this method, the difference of level between two consecutive points for each
setting of the instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings.
If the staff reading at a station is greater than the staff reading at the preceding
station, it indicates a fall.
If the staff reading at a station is smaller than the staff reading at the preceding
station, it indicates a rise.
The R.L.s of different points are then calculated by adding the rise or
subtracting the fall to or from the R.L. of the preceding station, as the case
may be
 Example 1
The following staff readings were observed successively with a level, instrument having been
moved after third, sixth and eighth readings:
2.228, 1.606, 0.988, 2.090, 2.864, 1.262, 0.602, 1.982, 1.044, 2.684
Calculate the R.L. of the points if the first reading was taken with a staff held on a B.M. of
432.384 m.
Stn. B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
Solution 1 2.228 432.384 BM
2 1.606 0.622 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 CP
4 2.864 0.774 432.85
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452 CP
6 1.044 1.982 1.38 433.07 CP
7 2.684 1.64 431.432
Check
 Example 2
The following consecutive staff readings were taken with a level:
0.795, 1.655, 2.890, 3.015, 0.655, 0.625, 0.955, 0.255, 1.635, 0.860, 2.375
The instrument was shifted after the fourth and the eighth readings. The first reading was
taken on a B.M. whose R.L. is 150.605 m.

Calculate the R.L. of the stations by Rise and Fall method and apply check
 Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground, the
Example 3 maximum staff reading can be 5 meters only and therefore sixth reading
will be a foresight taken on a turning point and the seventh reading will be a
The following back sight. Also the first reading will be a back sight and the last reading will
consecutive readings be a fore sight
were taken with a level
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
and 5 meter leveling
staff on continuously
sloping ground at a
common interval of 20
meters:
0.385; 1.030; 1.925;
2.825; 3.730; 4.685;
0.625; 2.005; 3.110 ;
4.485.
The reduced level of the
first point was 208.125
m. Calculate the reduced
levels of the points by
rise and fall method.
 Effect of Curvature and Refraction on Leveling
Effect of Curvature
The effect of curvature is to increase the staff reading because the line of collimation or line of sight is not a
level line, but a horizontal line (as in fig.a). The staff reading should have been taken at C where the level line cuts
the staff, but since the level provides only the horizontal line of sight, the staff reading is taken at the point B. Thus,
the apparent or observed staff reading is more and, therefore, the correction for curvature (BC = h) is negative and
is always subtracted from the observed staff reading. As the distance between the instrument and the staff
increases, BC also increases.

Actual Reading
from fig. b
OB2 = OA2 + AB2
or (OC + CB)2 = OA2 + AB2 h
or OC 2 + 2. OC. CB + CB2 = OA2 + AC 2
(for small distance, AC ≈ AB)
Desired Reading
or R2 + 2. R. h + h2 = R2 + 𝑙2
𝑙2 𝑙2 Fig: Effect of Curvature
𝑜𝑟 ℎ = ≈ (since h is very small compared to R)
2𝑅 + ℎ 2𝑅
the average radius of the earth is 6,370 km. So, if 𝑙 is in km, then
𝑙2 ∗ 1000
𝑜𝑟 ℎ = = 0.0785 𝑙2 in this equation, 𝒍 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐭𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒉 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬
2 ∗ 6370
Effect of Curvature and Refraction on Leveling
Refraction Correction:
𝟏 𝒍𝟐
𝑪𝒄 = ×
𝟕 𝟐𝑹
𝟏
=𝑪𝒄 = ×0.0785𝒍𝟐 =0.0112𝒍𝟐
𝟕

Combined Correction
=-0.0785𝒍𝟐 +0.0112𝒍𝟐 = -0.0673𝒍𝟐

Example 5
A level was set up at a point O and the distances of two staff stations A and B
were 150 m and 250 m, respectively. The observed staff readings on stations
A and B were 2.725 m and 1.855 m, respectively. Find the correct difference
of levels between stations A and B.
Solution:
 Effect of Curvature and Refraction on Leveling
Example 6
From the deck of a ship, the top of a lighthouse is just visible above the horizon. The top of the
lighthouse is 85 m above the mean sea level and the height of the eye of the observer is 6 m above
the mean sea level. Find the distance of the observer from the lighthouse.

Solution:
 Contouring
An imaginary line on the ground, joining the points of equal elevation with respect to a fixed datum, is called a
contour. The process by which a contour map is prepared is known as contouring. The map showing the altitudes of
different points is called a contour map or topographic map. A contour map presents a clear picture of the
undulation of the ground surface.
Figure (a) shows a pond with the water surface elevation of 101.00 m as shown in the plan
by the water mark. If the plan water level is now lowered by 1 m, another water mark
representing 100.00 m elevation will be obtained. These water marks may be surveyed and
represented on the map in the form of contours.

(a) (a) Topographic Map

 Contouring
Contour Interval:
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is known as the contour interval.
• The contour interval is kept constant for a contour map, otherwise the general appearance of the map would be
misleading.
• Contour intervals depend upon the nature of the ground, scale of the map, purpose of the survey and availability
of time and funds.
• Contour interval should be such that correct topography of the terrain may be depicted (drawing) clearly
For general topographical work, the contour interval may be decided from
the following rule:
25
Contour Interval = m
No. of cm per km
50
Contour Interval = ft
No. of inch per mile

Horizontal Equivalent:
The horizontal distance between any two consecutive contours is known as
horizontal equivalent. It is different for different contours and is dependent on the
slope of the ground surface. It is comparatively less in hills than in plains.
Example: Find a suitable contour interval on a map of scale
1:10,000
 Characteristics of Contour
The following characteristics of contours may be used while plotting or reading a contour map:
1. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other except in the case of an overhanging cliff or cave.
2. Contour lines of different elevations can unite to form one line only in the case of vertical cliff.
3. All points on a contour line have the same elevation.
4. Contour lines close together (e.g. near the top of a hill) indicate steep slope. Contour lines wide apart (e.g. at the top of' a
hill) indicates gentle slope
5. Contour lines uniformly spaced indicate a uniform slope. A series of straight parallel and equally spaced contours represent a
plane surface.
6. Contours cross ridge or valley lines at right angles.
7. A contour line must close itself, but not necessarily within the limits of the map. So, a contour line must be a continuous one
until it either goes off the map or closes itself.
8. A set of closed contours with higher values inside indicates a hill. Similarly, a set of closed contours with lower values inside
indicates a pond or depression without an outlet.
 Methods of Contouring
The field methods of contouring may be divided into the following two main classes:
(1)Direct method and
(2)Indirect method
Direct method
This method is comparatively slow and laborious and generally not used for a large
survey area. It is suitable for contouring of small areas where better accuracy is
required.
Indirect method
Indirect method of contouring is commonly employed in small scale surveys of
extensive areas. This method is cheaper, quicker and less laborious as compared with
direct method of contouring.
Indirect method of contouring can be employed in three different systems as follows:
i. Square or grid system
ii. Radial or tacheometric system
iii. Cross-section system
 Methods of Contouring
Square or grid system
In this system, the entire area is divided into a number of squares, the sides of which may vary
from 5 m to 15 m, depending upon the:
• nature of the ground,
• contour interval and
• scale of the map.
• The corners of the squares are fixed by pegs.
• The elevations of the corners of the squares are then
determined with a level and a staff by normal method of
leveling.
• The squares are plotted on the desired scale and the
calculated reduced levels with respect to a bench mark are
written at the corners of the squares.
• The required contour lines are then drawn by
interpolation. This system is suitable for an area with low
undulations and without any vegetative cover.
 Methods of Contouring
Radial or Tacheometric system
In this system:
• a number of radial lines at known angular interval are drawn from a
common and suitable point and the positions of the points at equal
distances are marked.
• From a suitable instrument station, staff readings of the bottom,
middle and top wires at these points are taken with a tacheometer.
• Calculations of the reduced levels and the horizontal distances of the
points from the instrument position are done using the tacheometric
formulas.
• The radial lines and the positions of the points on each line are
plotted on the desired scale and their reduced levels with respect to a
bench mark are entered.
• The required contours are then drawn by interpolation. This system
is suitable for a hilly or mountainous area
 Interpolation of Contouring

The process of drawing contours proportionally between the plotted points is

known as the interpolation of contours. The methods of interpolation are
based on the assumption that the slope of the ground between any two points
is uniform. There are three main methods of interpolation:
1. Estimation method
2. Arithmetic method
3. Graphical method
 Interpolation of Contouring
Arithmetic method:
In this method, positions of contours between two known points arc located by arithmetic
calculation.
Suppose A, B, C and D are four plotted points at 2 cm apart and their reduced levels are 57.5 m,
63.2 m, 68.2 m and 59.2 m, respectively (Fig.). It is required to draw contours at 2 m interval.
We first interpolate along AB. The total difference in elevation between points A and B is 63.2
- 57.5 = 5.7 m. Hence, the distance of the 58 m contour from point A along AB is 0.5x 2/5.7 =
0.18 cm. Similarly, the distances of the 60 m and 62 m contours from point A are 2.5x 2/5.7 =
0.88 cm and 4.5 x 2/5.7 = 0.158 cm, respectively. In this way, we can interpolate along AD, BC
and CD. The points having equal elevations are joined and the contours of 58 m, 60 m, 62 m, 64
m, 66 m and 68 m may be drawn.

This method is very accurate, but time consuming and

laborious. It is generally adopted when higher accuracy
is demanded for a limited area.
 Uses of Contour Maps
The following are some of the uses of contour maps:
1. To visualize the general character of the country, i.e. whether the country is flat hilly
or undulating
2. To decide the most suitable and economical sites for important engineering works such
as canals, sewers, roads, railways, reservoirs, etc.
3. To determine the catchment area of a drainage basin and hence the capacity of the
proposed reservoir.
4. To calculate the amount of earthwork in cutting and in filling along the alignment of
projects such as canals, roads, railways, etc.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of points.
6. To draw longitudinal sections and cross-sections to ascertain the nature of the ground.
7. To calculate the water capacities of the existing reservoirs.
8. To decide the best strategic positions for placing guns, the line of march and camping
grounds by the army commanders during wars.