POLITICAL SCIENCE

Complete Examination Preparation Guide

Course Code: D-5560-ACAD
Units Covered: Introduction to Political Science ◆ The State ◆ Democracy
Dictatorship ◆ Unitary & Federal Governments ◆ Parliamentary & Presidential Systems
Legislature ◆ Executive ◆ Judiciary

"The art of government is the organisation of idolatry."

— George Bernard Shaw

Complete Examination Preparation Guide

POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 1 ◆ INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE

(a) General Concept, Nature and History of Political Science

Political Science is the systematic study of the state, government, political behaviour, political
institutions, and political processes. The word "politics" comes from the Greek word polis meaning
"city-state." Aristotle — the Greek philosopher — famously called man "a political animal" (zoon
politikon), meaning that human beings are by nature social and political creatures who can only
fulfil their potential within a political community.

◆ Definition by Aristotle: "Political Science is the master science" — it governs all other
sciences because it determines the ends society should pursue.

◆ Definition by Bluntschli: "Political Science is the science which is concerned with the
State."

◆ Definition by Garner: "Political Science begins and ends with the State."

◆ Nature of Political Science: It is both a science (uses systematic methods, empirical data)
and an art (involves judgment, values, and practical skills).

◆ Ancient history: Originated with Greek thinkers — Plato (The Republic), Aristotle
(Politics), Thucydides (History of the Peloponnesian War).

◆ Medieval period: St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas linked political theory with
theology.

◆ Modern era: Machiavelli (The Prince, 1513) separated politics from ethics — gave birth to
modern political science.

◆ Contemporary: Includes behaviouralism, systems theory, and comparative politics.

(b) Scope and Aspects of Political Science

The scope of Political Science refers to the range of subjects it covers. It is a vast and
ever-expanding discipline that touches almost every aspect of human social life.

◆ The State: Origin, nature, elements, functions, and theories of the state.

◆ Government: Organisation and functioning of legislative, executive, and judicial

institutions.

◆ Political Theory: Study of concepts like sovereignty, liberty, equality, justice, rights, and
duties.

◆ Political Behaviour: How individuals and groups participate in politics — voting, lobbying,
public opinion.

◆ International Relations: Relations between states — diplomacy, war, peace, international

law, international organisations (UN).

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Comparative Politics: Comparing different political systems — democracies, dictatorships,

federal vs unitary states.

◆ Public Administration: How government policies are implemented and administered.

◆ Constitutional Law: Study of constitutions and fundamental rights.

★ Scope has expanded: Modern Political Science now includes political economy,
political sociology, public policy analysis, and gender politics.

(c) Utility of the Study of Political Science

Why study Political Science? This question is answered by examining the practical, intellectual,
and civic benefits the subject provides to individuals and society.

◆ Civic education: Creates informed, responsible citizens who understand their rights and
duties.

◆ Understanding government: Helps citizens understand how laws are made, how taxes are
used, and how leaders are accountable.

◆ Promotes democracy: An educated citizenry is essential for democracy to function —

Political Science provides this education.

◆ Career preparation: Essential for lawyers, civil servants, diplomats, politicians, journalists,
and academics.

◆ International understanding: Helps nations understand each other — reducing conflict and
promoting cooperation.

◆ Policy analysis: Trains people to evaluate government policies and propose improvements.

◆ Protection of rights: Citizens who understand political science are better equipped to protect
their fundamental rights.

◆ National development: Good governance — which Political Science teaches — is the

foundation of all development.

(d) Approaches and Methods to the Study of Political Science

Scholars have used different approaches (frameworks for thinking) and methods (tools for
research) to study Political Science systematically.

Traditional Approaches:

◆ Historical Approach: Studies political institutions and events through history to understand
the present.

◆ Philosophical Approach: Focuses on values — what government ought to do; what is

justice, freedom, equality?

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Legal/Institutional Approach: Studies formal structures — constitutions, laws, courts,

legislatures.

◆ Comparative Approach: Compares different political systems to identify patterns and

differences.

Modern/Behavioural Approaches:

◆ Behavioural Approach: Studies actual political behaviour — voting patterns, political

participation — using scientific methods.

◆ Systems Approach (David Easton): Views the political system as receiving inputs
(demands/support) from society and producing outputs (policies/laws).

◆ Decision-Making Approach: Focuses on how political decisions are made and who makes
them.

Research Methods:

◆ Empirical method: Collecting data through observation, surveys, and experiments.

◆ Inductive method: Drawing general conclusions from specific cases.

◆ Deductive method: Starting from general principles and applying them to specific situations.

◆ Case study method: In-depth study of a particular country, institution, or event.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 2 ◆ THE STATE

(a) Definition, Concept and Evolution of the State

The State is the central concept of Political Science. It is a politically organised community living
under a single system of government within a defined territory.

◆ Definition by Aristotle: "The State is a union of families and villages having for its end a
perfect and self-sufficing life."

◆ Definition by Woodrow Wilson: "The State is a people organised for law within a definite
territory."

◆ Definition by Max Weber: The State is a human community that successfully claims the
monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.

◆ Definition by Garner: "The State is a community of persons, more or less numerous,

permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and
possessing an organised government."

Evolution of the State:

◆ Kinship/Tribe stage: Earliest human societies organised around family/tribe bonds — no

formal state.

◆ City-state (Polis): Ancient Greece — the first formal political units; Athens, Sparta.

◆ Empire stage: Large empires (Roman, Persian, Mughal) — centralised authority over vast
territory.

◆ Feudal stage: Medieval Europe — decentralised power; lords ruled their own lands.

◆ Nation-state: Modern era (after Treaty of Westphalia 1648) — sovereign states with fixed
borders, national governments, and recognition by other states.

★ The modern nation-state has four essential elements: Population, Territory,

Government, and Sovereignty.

(b) Elements of the State

Every state, to be recognised as a state, must possess four essential elements. Without any one of
these, a political community cannot be called a state.

◆ 1. Population: A state must have a permanent population. There is no minimum or

maximum — Vatican City has ~800 people; China has 1.4 billion.

◆ 2. Territory: A state must have a defined, permanent territory — including land, water, and
airspace. Without fixed borders, there is no state.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ 3. Government: An organised political authority that makes and enforces laws. The
government is the agent of the state — it can change, but the state continues.

◆ 4. Sovereignty: The supreme, absolute, and unlimited power of the state to make and
enforce laws within its territory without interference from external powers.

■ Internal sovereignty: Supreme authority over all persons and groups within the state.
■ External sovereignty: Independence from foreign control — the right to conduct its
own foreign policy.
◆ Some scholars add Recognition as a fifth element: Other states must recognise a new state
for it to function in the international community.

(c) State and Government

Though often used interchangeably, the State and Government are distinct concepts.
Understanding the difference is essential.

State Permanent — it continues even when governments change

Government Temporary — changes through elections, coups, revolutions

State Abstract concept — includes population, territory, sovereignty

Government Concrete institution — includes legislature, executive, judiciary

State The whole — government is just one element of the state

Government The agent — acts on behalf of the state

State Has sovereignty — the ultimate authority

Government Exercises sovereignty on behalf of the state

◆ Example: When a government falls (e.g., Musharraf resigned in 2008), the State of Pakistan
continued — a new government simply took over.

(d) State and Society

◆ Society is broader than the State — it includes all social relationships: family, religion,
culture, economy.

◆ The State is a specific form of political organisation within society — society existed before
the state.

◆ The State has coercive power (laws, police, courts); society operates through voluntary
norms, customs, and traditions.

◆ The State protects society; society provides the human and cultural basis for the state.

◆ Marxist view: The State is an instrument of the ruling class to oppress the working class.

◆ Liberal view: The State is a neutral referee that balances competing interests in society.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Islamic view: The State is the political embodiment of the Muslim community (Ummah) —
it must uphold Sharia.

(e) State and Association

◆ An Association is a voluntary group of people organised for a specific purpose — trade
union, club, political party, religious body.

◆ Difference 1 — Membership: State membership is compulsory (you cannot opt out of your
state); association membership is voluntary.

◆ Difference 2 — Universality: The state includes ALL people within its territory;
associations include only their members.

◆ Difference 3 — Purpose: The state has an all-encompassing purpose (general welfare);

associations have specific, limited purposes.

◆ Difference 4 — Sovereignty: Only the state has sovereignty — the power to make binding
laws on everyone.

◆ Difference 5 — Coercion: The state can legally use force; associations cannot.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 3 ◆ DEMOCRACY

(a) Definition and Classes of Democracy

The word Democracy comes from the Greek words demos (people) and kratos (rule) — literally
"rule by the people." It is a system of government in which supreme power is vested in the people
and exercised by them directly or through their elected representatives.

◆ Abraham Lincoln's definition (most famous): "Government of the people, by the people, for
the people."

◆ Lord Bryce: "Democracy is a form of government in which the ruling power of a State is
legally vested in the entire body of the community."

Classes (Types) of Democracy:

◆ 1. Direct Democracy: Citizens themselves participate directly in making laws and decisions.
Example: Ancient Athens; modern Switzerland (referendums). Possible only in small
communities.

◆ 2. Indirect/Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives who govern on their

behalf. Example: Pakistan, UK, USA, India. Most common form in modern large states.

◆ 3. Liberal Democracy: Combines representative democracy with protection of individual

rights and civil liberties — free press, independent judiciary, rule of law.

◆ 4. Social Democracy: Combines democratic governance with a welfare state — government

provides education, health, housing. Example: Scandinavian countries.

◆ 5. Constitutional Democracy: Government powers are limited and defined by a written

constitution. Example: USA, Pakistan.

(b) Characteristics of Democracy

◆ Popular Sovereignty: All political authority derives from the people — "We the People."

◆ Free and Fair Elections: Regular, competitive elections through which citizens choose their
representatives.

◆ Rule of Law: Everyone — including the government — is subject to and accountable under
the law.

◆ Fundamental Rights: Citizens enjoy guaranteed rights — freedom of speech, assembly,

religion, press.

◆ Independent Judiciary: Courts interpret the constitution and protect rights without
government interference.

◆ Political Parties: Multiple parties compete for power — single-party systems are not truly
democratic.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Majority Rule with Minority Rights: The majority governs, but minority rights are
protected.

◆ Free Press: Media must be free to criticise and expose the government.

◆ Peaceful Transfer of Power: Losing parties accept election results and transfer power
peacefully.

◆ Civilian Control of Military: The military is under elected civilian authority — not the
reverse.

(c) Conditions for Democracy

Democracy does not automatically flourish — it requires certain conditions to survive and thrive.

◆ Educated and informed citizenry: Democracy requires voters who can make rational
decisions — literacy and education are essential.

◆ Strong civil society: Independent organisations (NGOs, trade unions, media, universities)
must be able to hold government accountable.

◆ Economic stability: Extreme poverty and inequality undermine democracy — people may
trade rights for security.

◆ Rule of law and independent judiciary: Without an independent court system, rights cannot
be protected.

◆ Free and independent media: Citizens need accurate information to make democratic
choices.

◆ Political culture of tolerance: Citizens and politicians must accept opposition and peaceful
disagreement.

◆ Civilian control of armed forces: Military must be subordinate to elected government.

◆ Strong political institutions: Parliament, civil service, electoral commission must be

independent and professional.

◆ National unity: Democratic governance is difficult when society is deeply divided by

ethnicity, religion, or region.

(d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Democracy

Advantages:

◆ Represents the will of the people — the most legitimate form of government.

◆ Peaceful change of government through elections — avoids violent revolution.

◆ Protects individual rights and freedoms.

◆ Promotes education, awareness, and civic participation.

◆ Accountability — elected officials can be voted out if they fail.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Promotes equality — every citizen has one vote regardless of wealth or status.

◆ Fosters political stability and national unity through inclusion.

Disadvantages:

◆ Slow decision-making — requires debate, consensus, and multiple approvals.

◆ Can be manipulated by wealthy elites, media, and populist politicians.

◆ Illiterate and uninformed voters may make poor choices.

◆ Majority can oppress minorities — "tyranny of the majority."

◆ Short-term thinking — politicians focus on next election, not long-term national interest.

◆ Expensive: Elections, campaigns, and parliamentary processes are costly.

◆ Instability in multi-party systems — coalition governments are often weak.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 4 ◆ DICTATORSHIP

(a) General Concept of Dictatorship

A Dictatorship is a form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in the hands of a
single person (the dictator) or a small group, without meaningful constitutional limits. The term
comes from the Latin dictator — a Roman magistrate given emergency powers temporarily. In
modern usage, it refers to authoritarian rule.

◆ Definition by Finer: "Dictatorship is the rule of one person or one party without
constitutional restraints."

◆ The dictator exercises legislative, executive, and judicial power — no separation of powers.

◆ No free elections — the dictator stays in power by force, not popular consent.

◆ Opposition is suppressed — political parties, free press, and civil society are controlled or
banned.

◆ Examples in Pakistan: Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, Zia-ul-Haq, Pervez Musharraf.

◆ Global examples: Hitler (Germany), Mussolini (Italy), Stalin (USSR), Mao Zedong (China).

(b) Classes (Types) of Dictatorship

◆ 1. Military Dictatorship: The army seizes power — most common in developing countries.
The military dissolves parliament and suspends the constitution. Example: Pakistan under
Ayub Khan.

◆ 2. Fascist Dictatorship: Based on extreme nationalism, one-party rule, and often racism.
Example: Hitler's Nazi Germany, Mussolini's Italy.

◆ 3. Communist Dictatorship: Based on Marxist-Leninist ideology — one-party (Communist

Party) rule "in the name of the working class." Example: Soviet Union under Stalin, China
under Mao.

◆ 4. Theocratic Dictatorship: Religious leaders hold absolute political power. Example: Iran
under Ayatollah Khomeini.

◆ 5. Totalitarian Dictatorship: The most extreme form — the state controls every aspect of
life: politics, economy, culture, religion, education, media. Example: North Korea today.

◆ 6. Authoritarian Dictatorship: Less extreme — controls politics and security but allows
some economic and social freedom. Example: Many Middle Eastern monarchies.

(c) Features of Dictatorship

◆ Concentration of power: All power in one person or party — no checks and balances.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Suppression of opposition: Political parties, free elections, and dissent are banned or
severely limited.

◆ Control of media: Press, radio, TV, and internet are censored — only regime-approved
information circulates.

◆ Use of force and fear: Police, army, secret service used to intimidate, imprison, or eliminate
opponents.

◆ Propaganda: Mass indoctrination through state-controlled media, education, and public

ceremonies.

◆ Cult of personality: The dictator is presented as an all-knowing, all-powerful, god-like

figure.

◆ Suspension of constitution: Rights and constitutional limits on power are suspended or

ignored.

◆ No rule of law: The dictator is above the law — courts serve the regime, not justice.

(d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Dictatorship

Advantages (as claimed by supporters):

◆ Quick decision-making: No parliamentary debate needed — decisions implemented

immediately.

◆ Strong and stable government: Avoids political instability, coalition crises, and partisan
deadlock.

◆ Efficient administration: Unified command means policies are implemented without

resistance.

◆ National security: Can mobilise resources rapidly in times of war or crisis.

◆ Development possible: Some dictatorships (China, Singapore) have achieved rapid

economic development.

Disadvantages:

◆ Violation of human rights: Fundamental freedoms — speech, assembly, press — are

crushed.

◆ No accountability: The ruler cannot be removed peacefully — only by death, coup, or

revolution.

◆ Corruption: Unchecked power breeds massive corruption.

◆ No rule of law: Justice is denied; courts serve the ruler.

◆ Suppresses talent: Creative, intellectual, and business talent flees or is silenced.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Personality-dependent: When the dictator dies or is removed, the system often collapses into
chaos.

◆ International isolation: Dictatorships are often sanctioned and isolated by the democratic
world.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 5 ◆ UNITARY AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS

(a-i) Unitary Government — General Concept

A Unitary Government is one in which all constitutional power is concentrated in a single central
government. Regional or local governments exist but only as agents of the centre — they have only
the powers the centre chooses to give them, and the centre can take those powers back.

◆ Definition: "A unitary state is one in which constitutional supremacy is vested in the central
government." — A.V. Dicey

◆ Examples: United Kingdom, France, Japan, Italy, Sri Lanka, pre-1971 Pakistan.

◆ The central parliament is supreme — it can make laws on any subject for any part of the
country.

◆ Local/regional governments are created by, and can be abolished by, the centre.

(a-ii) Merits of Unitary Government

◆ Strong and stable: One central authority — no conflict between centre and provinces.

◆ Simple structure: Easy to understand and administer — no complex division of powers.

◆ Efficient: Decisions made quickly and uniformly applied across the whole country.

◆ National unity: A single government fosters a stronger sense of national identity.

◆ Avoids duplication: No double administration — saves money and avoids confusion.

◆ Suited for small states: Works well in geographically small or culturally homogenous
countries.

◆ Flexible: No rigid constitutional division — central government can adapt quickly.

(a-iii) Demerits of Unitary Government

◆ Centralisation: Too much power at the centre — local needs and problems may be
neglected.

◆ Unsuitable for large countries: Cannot efficiently govern geographically large or culturally
diverse nations.

◆ Danger of tyranny: Concentration of power can lead to authoritarian rule.

◆ No local initiative: Provinces/regions have little power to solve their own problems.

◆ Overloads the centre: The central government is burdened with all decisions — may become
slow and inefficient.

◆ Regional discontent: Diverse regions may feel neglected or dominated — can cause
separatist movements.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

(b-i) Federal Government — Concept of Federal System

A Federal Government divides power between a central (national) government and regional
(state/provincial) governments, with each level having constitutional authority in its own sphere.
Neither level can abolish the other.

◆ Definition: "Federalism is a form of government in which powers are divided between a

national government and regional governments, and both are supreme within their own
sphere." — K.C. Wheare

◆ Examples: Pakistan, USA, India, Germany, Australia, Canada, Switzerland.

◆ The constitution is supreme — it defines the powers of both the centre and the provinces.

◆ An independent judiciary (Supreme Court) acts as the umpire between the centre and
provinces.

(b-ii) Salient Features of Federal Government

◆ Written constitution: Powers of all levels must be clearly written in a constitution.

◆ Division of powers: Powers divided into Federal List (centre only), Provincial List
(provinces only), and Concurrent List (both).

◆ Supremacy of constitution: The constitution is the highest law — both centre and provinces
must obey it.

◆ Independent judiciary: Courts resolve disputes between federal and provincial governments.

◆ Bicameral legislature: Upper house (e.g., Pakistan's Senate) represents the federating units
equally.

◆ Rigidity: The constitution is difficult to amend — requires special majority or provincial

consent.

◆ Dual citizenship: In some federations (USA), citizens have both national and state
citizenship.

(b-iii) Conditions for Federation

◆ Geographical proximity: Federating units should be geographically connected (Pakistan's
failure: East and West Pakistan were 1,600 km apart).

◆ Common defence needs: Units come together to provide collective security against external
threats.

◆ Desire for union: The people/units must voluntarily want to unite — forced federations fail.

◆ Similarity of social institutions: Common legal, cultural, or religious traditions make

federation easier.

◆ Adequate resources: Each unit must have sufficient resources to govern itself.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Commitment to constitution: All units must accept the constitution as supreme and binding.

(b-iv) Advantages and Disadvantages of Federal Government

Advantages:

◆ Suited for large/diverse countries: Accommodates regional, linguistic, and cultural diversity.

◆ Prevents tyranny: Division of power is a safeguard against authoritarian central rule.

◆ Local governance: Provinces can address local needs more efficiently than a distant central
government.

◆ Political participation: More levels of government mean more opportunities for citizens to
participate.

◆ Experimentation: Provinces can try new policies — successful ones can be adopted
nationally.

Disadvantages:

◆ Complex and expensive: Multiple levels of government — more bureaucracy and higher
costs.

◆ Conflict between centre and provinces: Disputes over powers can paralyse governance.

◆ Weak in emergencies: Federal systems can be slow to respond to national crises.

◆ Inequality: Rich provinces may develop faster than poor provinces — creating regional
imbalances.

◆ Separatism: If provinces feel neglected, they may seek independence (as East Pakistan did
in 1971).

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 6 ◆ PARLIAMENTARY & PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS

(a-i) Parliamentary Form of Government — General Concept

A Parliamentary System (also called Cabinet System or Westminster System) is a form of
government in which the executive (Prime Minister and Cabinet) is drawn from and remains
accountable to the legislature (Parliament). The executive and legislature are fused — not
separated.

◆ Origin: Developed in Britain over centuries — evolved from the Magna Carta (1215) to the
present.

◆ Examples: Pakistan (1973 Constitution), United Kingdom, India, Canada, Australia,

Germany.

◆ The Prime Minister is the head of government; a President or Monarch may be the
ceremonial head of state.

◆ The government must maintain the confidence (support) of parliament to remain in power.

(a-ii) Organisation of Parliamentary Government

◆ Head of State: President (Pakistan, India) or Monarch (UK, Canada) — largely ceremonial.

◆ Prime Minister: Head of government; leader of the majority party in parliament; chairs the
Cabinet.

◆ Cabinet: Senior ministers who collectively run the government; Cabinet decisions are
binding on all ministers ("collective responsibility").

◆ Parliament: The supreme legislative body — makes laws, approves budget, and holds the
government accountable.

◆ Lower House (e.g., National Assembly in Pakistan): Elected by the people; most important
house — the government must command its confidence.

◆ Upper House (e.g., Senate in Pakistan): Represents federating units; reviews legislation;
cannot remove the government.

◆ Opposition: Plays a vital role — questions the government, proposes alternatives, keeps
government accountable.

(a-iii) Features of Parliamentary Government

◆ Fusion of executive and legislative: The Prime Minister and Cabinet are members of
parliament — the two branches overlap.

◆ Collective responsibility: The entire Cabinet is collectively responsible to parliament — if

parliament withdraws confidence, the whole government falls.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Individual responsibility: Each minister is individually responsible for their department —

they can be questioned by parliament.

◆ Dual executive: Nominal head (President/Monarch) and real head (Prime Minister) — real
power with the PM.

◆ Parliamentary sovereignty: Parliament is supreme — it can pass, amend, or repeal any law.

◆ Vote of no confidence: Parliament can remove the government by passing a vote of no

confidence.

◆ Dissolution of parliament: The Prime Minister can advise the President to dissolve
parliament and call fresh elections.

(a-iv) Merits and Demerits of Parliamentary Government

Merits:

◆ Close relationship between executive and legislature — efficient law-making.

◆ Democratic accountability — government answerable to elected parliament at all times.

◆ Flexible — no rigid term; government can be changed quickly if it loses confidence.

◆ Prevents authoritarianism — collective responsibility limits individual power.

◆ Represents diverse interests — coalition governments include multiple parties.

Demerits:

◆ Political instability — governments can fall suddenly through no-confidence votes.

◆ Party discipline dominates — MPs vote along party lines, not on merit.

◆ Weak opposition — if one party has large majority, it can act without meaningful check.

◆ Difficult to fix responsibility — collective responsibility diffuses individual accountability.

(a-v) Parliamentary Sovereignty

Parliamentary Sovereignty means that parliament is the supreme legal authority — it can make
or unmake any law, and no other institution can override its legislation. It is the cornerstone of the
Westminster parliamentary system.

◆ A.V. Dicey's definition: Parliament has "the right to make or unmake any law whatsoever;
and no person or body is recognised as having the right to override or set aside the legislation
of Parliament."

◆ In the UK: Parliament is absolutely sovereign — no written constitution limits it; no court
can strike down an Act of Parliament.

◆ In Pakistan: Parliament is NOT absolutely sovereign — the 1973 Constitution is supreme;

the Supreme Court can strike down unconstitutional laws.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Parliamentary sovereignty includes: making laws, approving budgets, ratifying treaties,

declaring war, and removing the government.

★ KEY DIFFERENCE: UK parliament is supreme over the constitution;

Pakistan's parliament is subject to the constitution — the Supreme Court is the
final arbiter.

(b-i) Presidential Form of Government — General Concept

A Presidential System is a form of government in which the executive is independent of the
legislature. The President is both head of state and head of government, elected directly by the
people, and not removable by parliament except through impeachment.

◆ Origin: Developed in the United States after independence (1787 Constitution).

◆ Examples: USA, Brazil, Mexico, Indonesia, many Latin American countries.

◆ Based on strict separation of powers — legislature, executive, and judiciary are

independent.

◆ The President cannot dissolve Congress; Congress cannot remove the President except
through impeachment.

(b-ii) Organisation of Presidential Government

◆ President: Head of state AND head of government; elected directly by the people (in USA
— through Electoral College).

◆ Cabinet: Appointed by the President; responsible to the President alone — NOT to the
legislature.

◆ Congress/Legislature: Elected separately from the President; has full legislative power
independently.

◆ Senate: Upper house — ratifies treaties, confirms presidential appointments, tries

impeachments.

◆ House of Representatives: Lower house — initiates revenue bills; can impeach the
president.

◆ Supreme Court: Independent judiciary — can strike down laws of Congress AND executive
actions of the President.

(b-iii) Features of Presidential Government

◆ Separation of powers: Executive, legislative, and judicial powers are strictly separated.

◆ Checks and balances: Each branch has powers to limit the others — no single branch is
supreme.

◆ Fixed term: President serves a fixed term (4 years in USA) regardless of legislative support.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ Single executive: The President alone heads the executive — no Cabinet collective
responsibility.

◆ Direct election: The President has a direct democratic mandate from the people.

◆ Non-accountability to legislature: President does not need legislative confidence to remain

in office.

◆ Veto power: President can veto legislation passed by Congress (subject to override by 2/3
majority).

(b-iv) Merits and Demerits of Presidential Government

Merits:

◆ Stable government — President serves fixed term regardless of legislative politics.

◆ Strong executive — President can take decisive action without parliamentary approval.

◆ Clear accountability — voters know exactly who is responsible for the executive.

◆ Separation of powers prevents concentration of authority in one body.

◆ Independent legislature — Congress/parliament can pass laws without executive pressure.

Demerits:

◆ Deadlock — if President and legislature are from different parties, government can be
paralysed.

◆ Rigid — cannot easily remove a failing President before the term ends.

◆ Danger of authoritarianism — strong president with weak institutions can become a dictator.

◆ Less accountability — President is not regularly questioned by legislature as in

parliamentary system.

◆ Costly elections — separate elections for President and legislature are expensive.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 7 ◆ LEGISLATURE

(a) Concept of Legislature

The Legislature is the law-making organ of the government. It is the institution through which the
people's elected representatives deliberate, debate, and make laws for the governance of the state.
It is generally considered the most important organ because laws are the foundation of all
governance.

◆ The word "Legislature" comes from the Latin lex/legis meaning "law."

◆ In democratic systems: The legislature is elected by the people and derives its authority
from popular sovereignty.

◆ In Pakistan: The national legislature is called Parliament — comprising the National

Assembly (lower) and Senate (upper).

◆ John Locke described the legislature as "the supreme power of the commonwealth."

◆ Montesquieu insisted on separation of legislative power from executive and judicial power
to prevent tyranny.

(b) Organisation of Legislature

◆ Unicameral Legislature: One house/chamber. Example: Iran, China (National People's
Congress), many smaller countries.

■ Simpler, faster, less expensive.

■ Risk: No second chamber to review or revise hasty legislation.
◆ Bicameral Legislature: Two houses/chambers. Example: Pakistan (National Assembly +
Senate), UK (House of Commons + House of Lords), USA (House of Representatives +
Senate).

■ Lower House: Directly elected by the people; handles money bills; holds confidence
of government.
■ Upper House: Represents federating units (in federal states) or acts as revising
chamber; usually less powerful than lower house.
◆ In Pakistan's Parliament:

■ National Assembly: 336 seats (266 general + 60 women + 10 minorities); term = 5

years.
■ Senate: 96 seats; equal provincial representation; term = 6 years (half elected every 3
years).

(c) Role and Functions of Legislature

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ 1. Legislative function (primary): Making, amending, and repealing laws — the core
function.

◆ 2. Financial function: Approving the national budget; authorising government spending;

imposing taxes; scrutinising accounts.

◆ 3. Executive control (in parliamentary system): Holding the government accountable

through questions, debates, motions, committees, and votes of no confidence.

◆ 4. Constituent function: Amending the constitution (in many systems, special majority of
parliament required).

◆ 5. Electoral function: Electing President (in Pakistan, joint session of parliament),

Vice-President (some countries), members of commissions.

◆ 6. Judicial function: Impeaching the President; trying ministers for misconduct.

◆ 7. Deliberative function: A forum for national debate — airing grievances, raising public
concerns, formulating national policy.

◆ 8. Representative function: Representing the diverse interests, regions, and communities of

the country.

◆ 9. Ratification: In many systems, treaties and international agreements must be ratified by

the legislature.

(d) Bicameral vs Unicameral Legislature — Merits and Demerits

Merits of Bicameral Legislature:

◆ Second chamber provides a check on hasty or ill-considered legislation.

◆ Essential in federal states — upper house represents provinces/states equally.

◆ Distributes legislative work between two chambers — more thorough review.

◆ Prevents single-chamber tyranny — two houses must agree on legislation.

◆ Upper house provides continuity — it is not dissolved when lower house is dissolved.

Demerits of Bicameral Legislature:

◆ Slower law-making — both houses must agree; deadlock is possible.

◆ More expensive — two sets of members, staff, and facilities.

◆ Upper house often unelected or indirectly elected — less democratic.

◆ Conflict between chambers can paralyse legislation.

Merits of Unicameral Legislature:

◆ Simple, cheap, and efficient — faster law-making.

◆ Clear accountability — one body responsible for all legislation.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ More democratic — no unelected upper house.

Demerits of Unicameral Legislature:

◆ No second check — rushed or unconstitutional laws may pass more easily.

◆ Unsuitable for federal states — no chamber to represent units equally.

◆ Risk of tyranny of the majority — no revising chamber.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 8 ◆ EXECUTIVE

(a) Meaning and Definition of Executive

The Executive is the organ of government responsible for implementing, enforcing, and
administering laws and policies made by the legislature. While the legislature makes law and the
judiciary interprets it, the executive puts it into action.

◆ Broad definition: Includes all those involved in executing law — from the President/Prime
Minister down to the lowest government official.

◆ Narrow definition: Refers to the political executive — the President, Prime Minister, and
Cabinet — who make key policy decisions.

◆ Definition by Garner: "The executive includes all officials and organs which are responsible
for the execution of the will of the State as expressed in the law."

◆ In parliamentary systems (like Pakistan): The Prime Minister and Cabinet are the real
executive.

◆ In presidential systems (like USA): The President is both head of state and head of
government.

(b) Classes and Organisation of Executive

Types of Executive:

◆ 1. Nominal/Formal Executive: Has the title but not real power. Example: The President of
Pakistan (in parliamentary system); the British Monarch. Executive acts are done in their
name, but decisions are made by the real executive.

◆ 2. Real Executive: Has actual decision-making power. Example: Prime Minister of Pakistan;
President of USA.

◆ 3. Single Executive: One person holds executive power. Example: President of USA — sole
head of executive branch.

◆ 4. Plural Executive: Executive power shared among several persons. Example: Swiss
Federal Council — 7 members share executive power equally.

◆ 5. Hereditary Executive: Position passed through family — monarchs. Example: King of

Saudi Arabia.

◆ 6. Elected Executive: Chosen through elections. Example: President of USA, President of

France.

◆ 7. Parliamentary Executive: Executive drawn from and responsible to the legislature.

Example: Pakistan, UK, India.

◆ 8. Presidential Executive: Executive independent of legislature. Example: USA, Brazil.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

Organisation in Pakistan:

Constitutional head of state; elected by parliament + provincial

President
assemblies; largely ceremonial

Head of government; leader of majority in National Assembly; chairs

Prime Minister
Cabinet

Senior ministers; collectively responsible to parliament; policy-making

Cabinet
body

Federal Ministers Head individual ministries; implement policies in their domain

Bureaucracy Permanent civil service that implements government decisions

(c) Functions and Powers of Executive

◆ 1. Administrative function: Implementing laws passed by the legislature; running
government departments and agencies.

◆ 2. Legislative function: Introducing bills in parliament (most legislation originates from the
executive); issuing ordinances when parliament is not in session.

◆ 3. Military function: Commander-in-Chief of armed forces (nominal in parliamentary

systems); decisions on war, peace, and defence.

◆ 4. Diplomatic function: Conducting foreign policy; negotiating and signing treaties;

appointing ambassadors; representing the country internationally.

◆ 5. Financial function: Preparing and presenting the national budget to the legislature;
managing public finances.

◆ 6. Judicial function: Appointing judges (in many systems); power of pardon, reprieve, and
commutation of sentences.

◆ 7. Emergency powers: Declaring emergency (war, natural disaster, constitutional

breakdown); governing by ordinance during emergencies.

◆ 8. Appointments: Appointing governors, ambassadors, heads of public bodies, military

chiefs, and other senior officials.

◆ 9. Delegated legislation: Making rules, regulations, and by-laws under powers delegated by
parliament — "secondary legislation."

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

UNIT 9 ◆ JUDICIARY

(a) Meaning and Concept of Judiciary

The Judiciary is the organ of government responsible for interpreting laws, resolving disputes,
and administering justice. It is the guardian of the constitution and the protector of fundamental
rights. Without an independent judiciary, there is no rule of law — and without rule of law, there is
no democracy.

◆ Definition: "The judiciary is that branch of government which is charged with the
administration of justice." — Garner

◆ The judiciary acts as the referee between the state and its citizens, and between different
organs of government.

◆ Judicial independence: Judges must be free from political pressure, government influence,
and personal interest — only then can they deliver impartial justice.

◆ In Pakistan: The Supreme Court is the apex court; the High Courts are in each province;
District Courts at the local level.

◆ Judicial Review: The power of courts to examine laws and government actions to ensure
they conform to the constitution — and strike them down if they don't.

◆ Rule of Law: Everyone — including the government and the military — is subject to and
accountable under the law enforced by courts.

★ A famous quote: "An independent judiciary is the most important safeguard of

liberty." The Lawyers' Movement (2007-09) in Pakistan proved this — citizens
rose to defend judicial independence.

(b) Organisation and Classes of Judiciary

Pakistan's Court System:

Apex court; final court of appeal; constitutional interpretation; hears cases

Supreme Court
involving fundamental rights and federal-provincial disputes

Federal Shariat Examines laws to ensure conformity with Islam; can strike down
Court un-Islamic laws

One in each province; hears appeals from lower courts; original

High Courts
jurisdiction in fundamental rights cases

District Courts Trial courts at district level; handle most civil and criminal cases

Civil Courts Handle property, contract, family, and other civil disputes

Criminal Courts Handle criminal offences — Sessions Courts try serious crimes

Magistrate Courts Handle minor criminal offences at local level

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

Anti-terrorism courts, accountability courts (NAB), banking courts, family

Special Courts
courts, etc.

Types/Classes of Courts:

◆ Civil Courts: Resolve disputes between private parties — property, contracts, family
matters.

◆ Criminal Courts: Try persons accused of crimes — determine guilt and impose punishment.

◆ Constitutional Courts: Interpret the constitution; resolve disputes between organs/levels of

government.

◆ Administrative Courts/Tribunals: Resolve disputes between citizens and government

agencies.

◆ Special/Specialised Courts: Handle specific types of cases — anti-terrorism, accountability,

drug offences.

◆ Appellate Courts: Hear appeals from lower courts — do not conduct new trials, only review
decisions.

(c) Functions of Judiciary

◆ 1. Administration of justice: Most fundamental function — resolving civil and criminal
disputes by applying the law impartially.

◆ 2. Interpretation of laws: When law is ambiguous or silent, courts interpret its meaning and
intent — this interpretation becomes binding precedent (stare decisis).

◆ 3. Judicial review: Examining laws passed by parliament and actions of the executive to
ensure they conform to the constitution.

■ If a law violates the constitution, the Supreme Court can strike it down.
■ Example: Pakistan's Supreme Court has struck down emergency declarations and
martial law actions.
◆ 4. Protection of fundamental rights: Citizens can approach High Courts and Supreme Court
if their fundamental rights are violated — through writ petitions.

■ Habeas Corpus: Order to produce a detained person before court — protects against
illegal detention.
■ Mandamus: Orders a public official to perform a legal duty.
■ Certiorari: Brings a case from lower court to higher court for review.
■ Prohibition: Stops a lower court from exceeding its jurisdiction.
■ Quo Warranto: Challenges the right of a person to hold a public office.
◆ 5. Guardian of the constitution: In federal systems, the Supreme Court resolves disputes
between federal and provincial governments.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE ◆ COMPLETE EXAM GUIDE D-5560-ACAD

◆ 6. Advisory function: In Pakistan, the President can refer questions of constitutional

importance to the Supreme Court for advisory opinion.

◆ 7. Equity and justice: Courts apply not just the letter but the spirit of the law — ensuring
fair, just outcomes.

◆ 8. Suo motu action: Pakistani courts can take notice of matters of public importance without
anyone filing a case.

◆ 9. Supervision of lower courts: High Courts supervise and control the working of all courts
subordinate to them.

★ KEY: Judicial independence requires: (a) Security of tenure — judges cannot

be removed without cause; (b) Fixed salaries not subject to legislative reduction;
(c) Appointment on merit, not political patronage.

"The strength of a nation lies in the integrity of its institutions."

You have all the content you need. Structure your answers clearly and write with confidence.

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