Analog and Digital

Communication systems
Course Code: EC382; Credits: 03

Course Outcomes: After the completion of the course the student will be
able to:
CO1 Compare the performance of AM, FM schemes
CO2 Model a Digital Communication System
CO3 Convert Analog signal to Digital Signal
CO4 Compare different digital modulation schemes.
EC382-Analog and Digital Communication systems

Course Contents:

 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Chapter 2: Amplitude Modulation
 Chapter 3: Angle Modulation
 Chapter 4: Sampling theorem and Pulse Modulation
 Chapter 5: Digital Modulation Techniques
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

Chapter Objectives:
 Introduction to communication system, Communication Channels,
 Need for modulation, Analog vs Digital, Review of Signals and Systems.
 How communication systems work, Elements of electronic communication
system, representation of signals-time/frequency domain,
 Frequency allocation and propagation characteristics.
 Probability distributions, random process, narrow band noise, SNR, noise
bandwidth, noise temperature, and noise figure.
 Communication system
is a combination of circuits and devices put together to
accomplish a reliable transmission of information from one
point to another.

Source Communication System Destination

Source Communication System Destination

Destination
Source

Channel
Transmitter Receiver

5
Communicating over long distances has been a challenge throughout history. Man has been seeking different ways of
doing this since the beginning of time. The transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication
began thousands of years ago.
early methods of long-distance communication included runners to carry important messages, smoke signals, chains of
searchlights, drums, carrier pigeons, the Pony Express and the telegraph.
 Electrical Communication Systems

These methods of communication have been superseded by electrical

communication systems, where the communication is by using electrical signal.
What is communication?
It's the process in which information is transfer from one point in space and
time called the source to another point destination.
What is a communication system?
It's the group of mechanism that provides the information link between
source and destination.
What is the purpose of a communication system?
The purpose of a communication system is to transmit information signals
through a communication channel. Source:
[Link]
Fundamentals of Communication system: [Link]

Frequencies
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to cycles per second: thus 1 Hz is 1 c/s.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of frequencies from just above 0 Hz to ∞ Hz. The
frequency spectrum is broken up into different segments which indicate the usage for
particular frequency range as shown in table below.
Common Frequency ranges

The frequency band of 20 Hz to 20 kHz is the total band that the human ear can hear.

Types of Signal There are only two different types of signal that are processed,
transmitted and received by telecommunication equipment. These are analogue and
digital. Each type has individual characteristics.
Measurement of Signal Level The gain or loss of a network can be expressed as a ratio of
output power over input power. If the output power is greater than the input power then the
network has a power ratio > 1, which means that the network has a gain. If the output power
is less than the input power then the network has a power ratio < 1, which means that the
network has a loss. If the power ratio equals 1 then the network has a unity gain.
Instead of measuring the power a signal dissipates in watts, it is easier to measure the signal
level. The unit of measurement is the bel, but this is a rather large unit for practical purposes,
so instead the decibel is used.

The Decibel
A decibel (dB) is one-tenth of a bel and can be defined as the loss or gain of a network in a
logarithmic form.
Power in (Pi ) Power out (P out)

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
The loss or gain N ratio of the network shown above is given as follows: N ratio =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
N = 10 log10 dB
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Relationship between power and dBm
The dBm: This unit of measurement is used to measure the actual power at a point in a
system relative to 1 mW. This indicates whether the power at the point is greater than 1
mW or less than 1 mW. The dBm is defined as the gain or loss of a network, where the
reference signal power is 1 mW, and the power ratio is expressed in a logarithmic form.
This is shown by 𝑃
𝑁 = 10 log10 𝑑𝐵𝑚
1 𝑚𝑊
Example: Determine the signal level for each of the following signal powers in dBm:
1. 4.0 µW
2. 16µW

𝑃 4.0 µW
1. N = 10 log10 = 10 log10 dBm
1 𝑚𝑊 1 𝑚𝑊
N = 10 log10 0.004 = - 23.98 dBm

𝑃 16 µW
2. N = 10 log10 = 10 log10 dBm
1 𝑚𝑊 1 𝑚𝑊
N = 10 log10 0.016= - 17.96 d B m
 What is a communication system?

 Communication systems are designed to transmit

information.
 Communication systems Design concerns:
• Selection of the information–bearing waveform;
• Bandwidth and power of the waveform;
• Effect of system noise on the received information;
• Cost of the system.

These factors will be discussed later in this course

Digital and Analog Sources and Systems
Basic Definitions:
• Analog Information Source:
An analog information source produces messages which are defined on a
continuum. (E.g. :Microphone)

• Digital Information Source:

A digital information source produces a finite set of possible messages.
(E.g. :Typewriter)
x(t) x(t)

t t
Analog Digital
 Digital and Analog Sources and Systems

A digital communication system transfers information from a digital

source to the intended receiver (also called the sink).
An analog communication system transfers information from an analog
source to the sink.
A digital waveform is defined as a function of time that can have a
discrete set of amplitude values.
An Analog waveform is a function that has a continuous range of values.
Need for Modulation:

 Reduction in Height of antenna

 Multiplexing
 Narrow banding of signal
 Avoids mixing of signals
 Interference from other signals –
controlled/minimised
 Effective power radiated by antenna
 Increase range of communication
 Improve quality of reception
 Digital Communication
Advantages
• Relatively inexpensive digital circuits may be used;
• Privacy is preserved by using data encryption;
• Data from voice, video, and data sources may be merged and transmitted
over a common digital transmission system;
• In long-distance systems, noise dose not accumulate from repeater to
repeater. Data regeneration is possible
• Errors in detected data may be small, even when there is a large amount
of noise on the received signal;
• Errors may often be corrected by the use of coding.

Disadvantages
• Generally, more bandwidth is required than that for analog systems;
• Synchronization is required.
 Encoding and Decoding for Digital Communication
 Coding involves adding extra (redundant) bits to data to reduce or correct errors at the
output of the receiver.

The disadvantage of these extra bits is to increase the data rate and the bandwidth of the
encoded signal.

General Digital Communication System

 Deterministic and Random Waveforms

 A Deterministic waveform can be modeled as a

completely specified function of time.
w(t )  A cos(0t  0 )

 A Random Waveform (or stochastic waveform)

cannot be modeled as a completely specified
function of time and must be modeled
probabilistically.

 In this course we will focus mainly on

deterministic waveforms.
Block Diagram of A Communication System
 All communication systems contain three main sub systems:
1. Transmitter
2. Channel
3. Receiver

Transmitter Receiver
 Block Diagram of A Communication System
TRANSMITTER:
 The signal-processing block is used for more efficient transmission.
Examples:
• In an analog system, the signal processor may be an analog low-pass filter to restrict the bandwidth of
m(t).
• In a hybrid system, the signal processor may be an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce digital
signals that represent samples of the analog input signal.

 The transmitter carrier circuit converts the processed base band signal into a frequency band that is
appropriate for the transmission medium of the channel.

Example:
• An amplitude –modulated (AM) broadcasting station with an assigned frequency of 850 kHz has a carrier
frequency fc=850kHz. The mapping of the base band input information waveform m(t) into the band pass
signal s(t) is called modulation. It will be shown that any band pass signal has the form

s(t )  R(t ) cos(ct   (t )) c  2 f

If R(t)=1 and θ(t) = 0, s(t) would be a pure sinusoid of frequency f=fc with zero bandwidth.
 Block Diagram of A Communication System
Channel:
 Channels represents the path in which signals travel from transmitter to receiver. Very general
classification of channels are:

• Wire: Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable, waveguide, and fiber-optic cables.
• Wireless: Air vacuum, and seawater.

In general, the channel medium attenuates the signal so that the delivered
information deteriorated from that of the source. The channel noise may arise
from natural electrical disturbances or from artificial sources.
 Block Diagram of A Communication System
Receiver:
 The receiver takes the corrupted signal at the channel output and converts it to be a base band signal that can
be handled by the receiver’s base band processor.

 The base band processor cleans up this signal and delivers an estimate of the source information m(t) to
the communication system output.

 In digital systems, the measure of signal deterioration is usually taken to be the probability of bit error P(e) –
also called Bit Error Rate (BER) of the delivered data m(t).

 In analog systems, the performance measure is usually taken to be the Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) at the
receiver output.

Transmitter Receiver
What makes a Communication System GOOD
 We can measure the “GOODNESS” of a communication system in many
ways:
How close is the estimate to the original signal m(t)
• Better estimate = higher quality transmission
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) for analog m(t)
• Bit Error Rate (BER) for digital m(t)

 How much power is required to transmit s(t)?

• Lower power = longer battery life, less interference

 How much bandwidth B is required to transmit s(t)?

• Less B means more users can share the channel
• Exception: Spread Spectrum -- users use same B.

 How much information is transmitted?

• In analog systems information is related to B of m(t).
• In digital systems information is expressed in bits/sec.
Signals:
Systems
• A system is an entity that manipulates one or more signals
that accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals.
• The input/output relationship of a system is modeled using
mathematical equations.
• We want to study the response of systems to signals.
• A system may be made up of physical components (electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic) or may be an algorithm that computes
an output from an input signal.
• Examples:
– Circuits (Input: Voltage, Output: Current) v (t )  Ri (t )
• Simple resistor circuit:
– Mass Spring System (Input: Force, Output: displacement)
– Automatic Speaker Recognition (Input: Speech, Output:
Identity)
Applications of Signals and Systems
• Acoustics: Restore speech in a noisy environment such as
cockpit
• Communications: Transmission in mobile phones, GPS, radar
and sonar
• Multimedia: Compress signals to store data such as CDs,
DVDs
• Biomedical: Extract information from biological signals:
– Electrocardiogram (ECG) electrical signals generated by the
heart
– Electroencephalogram (EEG) electrical signals generated by
the brain
– Medical Imaging
• Biometrics: Fingerprint identification, speaker recognition, iris
recognition
Different Types of Signals:
 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals.
 Even and Odd signals.
 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals.
 Energy and Power signals.
 Deterministic Signals and Random signals: A signal can be specified as
deterministic if it is a specified function of time. Signals that can take any
value with different probabilities with respect to time are defined as
random signals.
 Causal and Non-causal Signals.
 Analog and Digital Signals.
 Real and Complex.
Classification of Signals

• One-dimensional vs. Multi-dimensional: The signal can be

a function of a single variable or multiple variables.
– Examples:
• Speech varies as a function of timeone-dimensional
• Image intensity varies as a function of (x,y)
coordinatesmulti-dimensional
– In this course, we focus on one-dimensional signals.
• Continuous-time vs. discrete-time:
– A signal is continuous time if it is defined for all time,
x(t).
– A signal is discrete time if it is defined only at discrete
instants of time, x[n].
– A discrete time signal is derived from a continuous time
signal through sampling, i.e.:

x[n]  x(nTs ), Ts is sampling period

• Analog vs. Digital:
– A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a
continuous range is an analog signal.
– A digital signal is one whose amplitude can take on only
a finite number of values.
– Example: Binary signals are digital signals.
– An analog signal can be converted into a digital signal
through quantization.
• Deterministic vs. Random:
– A signal is deterministic if we can define its value at
each time point as a mathematical function
– A signal is random if it cannot be described by a
mathematical function (can only define statistics)
– Example:
• Electrical noise generated in an amplifier of a
radio/TV receiver.
• Periodic vs. Aperiodic Signals:
– A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfies
x (t )  x (t  T )
– The smallest T, that satisfies this relationship is called
the fundamental period.
–f 
T
1
is called the frequency of the signal (Hz).
– Angular frequency,   2f  2T (radians/sec).
– A signal is either periodic or aperiodic.
– A periodic signal must continue forever.
– Example: The voltage at an AC power source is
a T b T
periodic. 0 0

a
x(t )dt   x(t )dt   x(t )dt
b T0
• Causal, Anticausal vs. Noncausal Signals:
– A signal that does not start before t=0 is a causal
signal. x(t)=0, t<0
– A signal that starts before t=0 is a noncausal signal.
– A signal that is zero for t>0 is called an anticausal
signal.
• Even vs. Odd:
– A signal is even if x(t)=x(-t).
– A signal is odd if x(t)=-x(-t)
– Examples:
• Sin(t) is an odd signal.
• Cos(t) is an even signal.
– A signal can be even, odd or neither.
– Any signal can be written as a combination of
an even and odd signal.
x(t )  x(t )
xe (t ) 
2
x(t )  x(t )
xo (t ) 
2
 Properties of Even and Odd Functions
• Even x Odd = Odd
• Odd x Odd = Even
• Even x Even = Even
• Even + Even = Even
• Even + Odd = Neither a

e
a

 x (t )dt  2 x (t )dt e
a
•
0
Odd + Odd = Odd a

x
a
o (t ) dt  0
• Finite vs. Infinite Length:
– X(t) is a finite length signal if it is nonzero over
a finite interval a<t<b
– X(t) is infinite length signal if it is nonzero over
all real numbers.
– Periodic signals are infinite length.
• Energy signals vs. power signals:
– Consider a voltage v(t) developed across a resistor R,
producing a current i(t).
– The instantaneous power: p(t)=v2(t)/R=Ri2(t)
– In signal analysis, the instantaneous power of a signal x(t) is
equivalent to the instantaneous power over 1 resistor and is
defined as x2(t). T /2
lim T   x 2 (t )dt
– Total Energy: T / 2

– Average Power: 1
T /2

x
2
lim T  (t )dt
T T / 2
• Energy vs. Power Signals:
– A signal is an energy signal if its energy is finite,
0<E<∞.
– A signal is a power signal if its power is finite, 0<P<∞.
– An energy signal has zero power, and a power signal
has infinite energy.
– Periodic signals and random signals are usually
power signals.
– Signals that are both deterministic and aperiodic are
usually energy signals.
– Finite length and finite amplitude signals are energy
signals.
A causal system is one whose output depends only on the
present and the past inputs.
A noncausal system's output depends on the future inputs.

A causal signal is any signal that is zero prior to time zero.

Thus, if x(n) denotes the signal amplitude at time (sample) n,
the signal x is said to be causal if x(n)=0 for all n < 0.
A system is said to be stable if every bounded input produces
the bounded output.
Review of Signals and Systems:
 A signal is a description of how one parameter varies with
another parameter. For instance, voltage changing over time in
an electronic circuit, or brightness varying with distance in an
image. A system is any process that produces an output signal in
response to an input signal.
Text Books:
1) L. W. COUCH II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall.
2) Bruce Carlson etl “An Introduction to Signals and Noise in Electrical Communication”,
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002.
3) John G Proakis and Masoud Salehi “Communication Systems Engineering”, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 2002.
4) Simon Haykin “Communication systems”, John Wiley and sons, Inc.,2001
5) Lloyd T. and Mitchel E. S., “Theory and problems of Electronic Communication”,
Schaum’s outline Series, McGRAW-Hill, 1998.
6) B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication system”, Oxford University
press, Inc., 1998.