Chapter 5
Ethnicity, INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS,
IDENTITY & MULTICULTURALISM
Unity in diversity or diversity in unity:
Multiculturalism
Ethnicity, Ethnic Groups, & Ethnic Identity
Ethnicity: derived from the Greek word ‘ethnos’ (which in turn,
derived from the Latin word ‘ethnikos’)
It literally means “a group of people bound together by similar
manners, customs or other distinctive features”
In the context of ancient Greek, it referred to a collectivity of
humans lived & acted together:translated today as ‘people’ or
‘nation’ (not political unit per say, but group of people with
shared communality).
Ethnicity...
A group with which individuals choose to identify on the basis
of shared ancestry and/or heritage: Identification, category
An aspect of social relationship between agents who consider
themselves as culturally distinctive from members of other
groups with whom they have a minimum of regular
interaction”: agency and relative notion of ethnicity
Ethnic Groups
An Ethnic group is 'a collectivity within a larger society that has
real or putative common ancestry, memories of a shared
historical past, & a cultural focus on one or more symbolic
elements’.
An ‘ethnic group’ is based on the belief in common descent
shared by its members, extending beyond kinship, political
solidarity vis-a-vis other groups, & common customs, language,
religion, values, morality, & etiquette (Max Weber 1978).
An ethnic group is “an imagined community” that possesses a
“character & quality”. (Anderson1983).
Ethnicity/ethnic group: an aspect of social
relationship-within and outside the group
...since ethnic categories are created out of the very contact
between groups, dealing with ethnic groups in total isolation is
as absurd as to speak of the sound from one hand clapping
(Eriksen 2022/Bateson 1979).
Ethnicity/ethnic groups: as a self-defined group based on
subjective factors and/or fundamental cultural values chosen
by members from their past history or present existing
conditions in which members are aware of-and-in contact with
other ethnic groups (Barth 1969).
... in a context of inter-ethnic interaction, group distinctiveness
strongly depends on identification of self & ascription by others.
Ethnic Group vs. Inter-ethnic relations
An ethnic group is defined out of group interaction in which members of
a group keep their social solidarity, identified themselves as belonging to
specific group based on their communalities (language, myth of origin, &
shared cultural entities) that is defined in reference with others.
Ethnic groups constitute an identity as defined by outsiders who do not
belong to the group but identify it as different from their own groups &
by “insiders” who belong to the same group.
This generally becomes the basis of mobilizing group’s consciousness &
solidarity; this in certain situations result in political activities.
Six main features for the definition of an ethnic
group (Hutchinson & Smith,1996):
1. Common proper name, to identify & express the “essence” of the community;
2. A myth of common ancestry: idea of common origin in time & place that
gives an ethnic group a sense of fictive kinship;
3. Shared memories of a common past (s), including heroes, events, & their
commemoration
4. One or more elements of common culture: mostly religion, customs, &
language
5. A link with a homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnic
group, but its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as with diaspora
peoples;
6. A sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic’s
population
Ethnic Identity and layer of identifications
There is no widely agreed upon definition of ethnic identity
Ethnic identity is an affiliative construct, where an individual is viewed by
themselves & by others as belonging to a particular ethnic or cultural
group.
An individual can choose to associate with a group especially if other
choices are available (i.e., the person is of mixed ethnic or racial
heritage)
‘Production of identification through contrast...’ (Eriksen 2001:292);
segmentary identity (layered identity)
Affiliation can be influenced by racial, natal, symbolic, & other cultural
factors.
Ethnic Identity
Ethnic identity can be defined as a manner in which persons,
on account of their ethnic origin, locate themselves
psychologically in relation to one or more social systems, & in
which they perceive others as locating them in relation to
those systems
Symbolic ethnic identity: usually implies that individuals
choose their identity; however, to some extent the cultural
elements of the ethnic or racial group have a modest
influence on their behavior
On the individual level, ethnicity is a social-psychological
process, which gives an individual a sense of belonging &
identity
Objective vs. Subjective aspects of ethnic identity
Objective aspects: observable behavior, both cultural & social:
(1) Speaking an ethnic language, practicing ethnic traditions, displaying
costumes
(2) Participation in ethnic personal networks, such as family & friendships
(3) Participation in ethnic institutional organizations, such as belief systems,
social organizations, political affiliation etc.
Subjective aspects of ethnic identity
Subjective aspect include mental images, ideas, attitudes, & feelings
We can distinguish at least three types of subjective aspects of identity:
1. Cognitive: mental process of knowing, understanding and learning
2. Moral: sense of duty, beliefs about right or wrong
3. Affective: feelings, attitude
These can also be interconnected with the objective aspects but it should
not be assumed that, empirically, the two types are always dependent
upon each other.
Theories of Ethnicity:Primordialist, Instrumentalist &
Constructivist
1 Primordial Ethnicity is fixed at birth; ethnic identification is based on a deep
approach ‘primordial’ attachment to a group or culture
Kin (blood), land (place) and language (or religion) rooted in a deep-
seated, mythical community
2 Situational or Ethnicity is based on people’s historical and symbolic memory; it is
instrumental something created and exploited by actors (leaders) in the pragmatic
approach pursuit of their own interest
Rational calculations of advantage & stimulated by political
mobilization under the leadership of actors whose primary motives are
non-ethnic; an instrument of group mobilization for political &
economic ends
3 Constructivist Ethnicity or ethnic identity is not something people possessed but
approach something they construct in specific social and historical context to
further their own interest; role of actors and multiple (back-and-forth)
Negotiated & constructed in everyday living, not out of the blue, but
using historical, social & other ethnic raw materials.
1. The Primordial Model of Ethnicity
The Primordialist approach: the oldest in anthropological literature; it was popular
until the mid-1970s (kin, location, religion)
The roots of Primordialist thinking can be traced back to the German Romantic
philosophers, especially Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), proclaimed the
primacy of emotions & language, & defined society a deep-seated, mythical
community.
Herder envisaged that every Volk (people) had its own values, customs, language and
‘spirit’ (Volksgeist) & argued for the “atavistic power” of the blood and soil (Blut und
Boden) that bound one closely with one’s people (das Volk).
Indeed, Primordialism is an “objectivist or essentialist theory” which argues, that
“ultimately there is some real, tangible, foundation for ethnic identification.”
Primordialism
Clifford Geertz (1973), systematized the primordial model
articulating ethnicity as a natural phenomenon with its
foundations in kinship, locality and cultural ties.
For Geertz what matters analytically is that ties of blood, language
& culture as seen by actors to be ineffable & obligatory; that they
are seen as natural.
Some respects these putative 'primordial attachments' are actually
likely to be stimulated & quickened by the political modernization
of nation-building.
Primordialism
In its general sense then, it can be said that ethnicity is something given,
ascribed at birth, deriving from the kin-and-clan-structure of human
society, & hence something more or less fixed & permanent.
A model by Isaacs (1974) further illustrated the concept of primordial ties
as a means of explaining the power & persistence of ethnic identity, which
he called ‘basic group identity’.
Isaacs’s basic group identity was linked to ethnic identity, which was argued
to be assigned at birth & more fundamental & natural than other social
links.
At birth a person “becomes” a member of a particular group; Ethnic
identification is based on deep, ‘primordial’ attachments to that group,
established by kinship & descent.
One’s ethnicity is thus “fixed” & an unchangeable part of one’s identity.
Primordalism
Smith (1986), one of the articulators of this perspective, in his part, theorized the defining elements of
ethnic identification as psychological & emotional, emerging from a person’s historical & cultural
backgrounds.
He illustrated that the ‘core’ of ethnicity resides in the myths, memories, values, symbols & the
characteristic styles of particular historic configurations, i.e., what he calls ‘a myth-symbol complex’.
The durability of the ethnie (ethnic group) resides in the forms & content of the myth-symbol complex.
Of pivotal importance for the survival of the ethnie is the diffusion & transmission of the myth-symbol
complex to its unit of population & its future generations.
Primordial ties as the basic organizing principles & bonds of human association throughout history.
To sum, Smith concluded that, ‘primordialism’ makes two distinct claims.
Firstly, ethnicity & ethnic attachment is “natural & innate”, which would never change over time, &
Secondly, it is “ancient & perennial” (Smith, 1986).
By this, ethnicity is an ascribed status & ethnic membership is fixed, permanent & primarily ascribed
through birth.
2. Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of
Ethnicity
• Ethnicity as situationally defined, depending on rational calculations of advantage & stimulated by political
mobilization under the leadership of actors whose primary motives are non-ethnic.
• Sees ethnicity as an instrument of group mobilization for political & economic ends (Banks 1996); as something that
can be changed, constructed or even manipulated to gain specific political and/or economic ends.
Proponents of this perspective (e.g., Abner Cohen, Paul Brass & Ted Gurr) advocate that in the contexts of modern
states, leaders (political elites) use & manipulate perceptions of ethnic identity to further their own ends & stay in
power.
In this regard, ethnicity is created in the dynamics of elite competition within the boundaries determined by political &
economic realities” & ethnic groups are to be seen as a product of political myths, created & manipulated by culture
elites in their pursuit of advantages & power.
Emphasizes on the ethnic group as a collectively organized strategy for the protection of economic & political
interests”.
Ethnicity is "a group option in which resources are mobilized for the purpose of pressuring the political system to
allocate public goods for the benefit of the members of a self-differentiating collectivity”.
The pursuit of political advantage and/or material self-interest is the calculus, which is typically, held to inform such
behavior.
3. Constructivist Theory of Ethnicity
Ethnicity is something that is being negotiated & constructed in everyday living,
however, construction does not take place out of the blue.
It depends on historical, social & the presence of ethnic raw material to be utilized.
It regards ethnicity as a process, which continues to unfold.
It has much to do with the exigencies of everyday survival (ethnicity is constructed
in the process of feeding, clothing, sending to school & conversing with children &
others).
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this approach is its subjectivist stance & the
role of individual agencies & circumstances in triggering the historical & social
factors.
However, this does not mean that all “subjectivists” reject all objective aspects of
ethnicity.
Constructivist theory...
Barth is the leading figure of this approach, who viewed ethnic identity as an
“individualistic strategy” in which individuals move from one identity to
another to “advance their personal economic & political interests, or to
minimize their losses” .
Ethnic identity forms through boundary maintenance & interaction
between individuals. Depending on each social interaction, a person’s
ethnic identity can be perceived or presented in various ways.
Ethnic boundaries were psychological boundaries; ethnic culture & its
content were irrelevant.
Overall, interaction between individuals does not lead to an assimilation or
homogenization of culture.
Instead, cultural diversity & ethnic identity are still maintained, but in a non-
Diversity: Ethnic/cultural, racial and religious
Diversity is an intrinsic characteristic of human societies
It contributes to the richness of human life, offering
multitudinous ways to interpret and navigate the world
Diverse festivals, costumes and cuisines
Linguistic pluralism
Diversity of skills and adaptations
Diversity as basis for unity: interdependence (division of
labour): organic solidarity
Ethnicity and culture: basis for diversity
Ethnicity and culture form the bedrock of diversity
They shape our identities, influence our worldviews, and
dictate our behaviour
Ethnic diversity is a common phenomenon across the
world; emerges from :
Historical migrations intermingling of populations
Trade and sustained interactions among cultures
Colonialism and imperial expansions
State formations and waxing of boundaries
Pillars of Unity in diversity
Diversity forms the fabric of human existence, unity
provides the thread that binds it together. Unity in
diversity does not imply the erasure of differences
Central pillars of UiD:
Mutual respect and understanding
Inclusiveness (in education, cultural
representation, access to employment etc)
Respectful intercultural dialogue
Unity in diversity: importance vs. challenges
Importance
social cohesion and peaceful coexistence
Economic growth and quality of life (happiness)
Cultural enrichment, vitality expanded pool of
knowledge and skills
Challenges
Cultural prejudice and stereotypes resulting in
marginalization & vulnerabilities of minorities
Systemic inequalities; noninclusive governance
Multiculturalism: Definition and Theories
Multicultralism:
The way in which a given society engages with cultural diversity.
The manner in which a society deals with cultural diversity, both at the national &
community level.
Multiculturalism: presupposes that society in general benefits from increased diversity
through the harmonious coexistence of different cultures.
The underlying assumption is that:
members of very different cultures can coexist peacefully & multiculturalism articulates
the view that society is strengthened through preserving, respecting, & even encouraging
cultural diversity.
From the perspective of political philosophy, multiculturalism is to mean the ways in
which societies formulate & implement official policies which deal with the equitable
treatment of different cultures.
Multiculturalism:
Multiculturalism theories
Multiculturalism can take place all over the nation or it can take place within communities of nation.
Multiculturalism can occur naturally through immigration, & when jurisdictions of various cultures are
united together through legislative verdict (e.g French & English Canada).
Advocates of multiculturalism: people should keep hold of at least some aspects of their customs or
cultures.
In opposition, others say multiculturalism threatens the social order by reducing the identity & pressure
of the predominant culture.
In this sense, multiculturalism is clearly a sociopolitical issue.
Theories of Multiculturalism
There are two theories or models to conceptualize multiculturalism.
These theories are the “melting pot” & the “salad bowl” theories.
Theories of Multiculturalism: Melting pot vs.
Salad bowel theories
1. The Melting Pot Theory
assumes that different immigrant groups will be inclined to
“melt together,” leaving their own individual cultures &
subsequently fully assimilating into the dominant society & its
culture.
Describe the assimilation of immigrants into countries like the
USA. The melting pot theory is often shown by the metaphor of
a smelting pots in which the "elements iron & carbon are
melted together to create a single, stronger metal steel".
Multiculturalism: Melting pot vs. Salad bowl
theories
2. The Salad Bowl Theory
Refers to a liberal theory of multiculturalism, which depicts a
heterogeneous society where people coexist by retaining at least
some of the distinctive aspects of their traditional culture.
Like ingredients of salad, various cultures are brought together;
however, retain their own distinct flavors rather than mixing into a
single homogeneous culture.
Examples: New York City, in the US, is seen as an example of a
salad bowl society. It comprises many unique ethnic communities
like “Little India,” & “Chinatown” (Longley, Robert, 2021).
Unit 5: Inter-Ethnic Relations, Identity….….
New York City, in the US, is seen as an example of a salad bowl society.
It comprises many unique ethnic communities like “Little India,” “Little Odessa,” &
“Chinatown” (Longley, Robert, 2021).
According to the assertion of salad bowl theory it is not necessary for people to
abandon their cultural heritage in order to be considered members of the dominant
society.
The Characteristics of a Multicultural Society
People of different races, ethnicities, and nationalities living together in the same
community.
In multicultural communities, people up hold, transfer, cherish, & share their distinctive
cultural ways of life, languages, art, traditions, & behaviors.
Importance of Diversity: A recap
Multiculturalism is a means to attain a high degree of cultural diversity.
Diversity takes place when people of diverse races, nationalities, religions,
and ethnicity gather together to form a community.
An actual diverse society is one that recognizes & values the cultural
differences in its people.
Supporters of cultural diversity argue that it makes humanity stronger &
may, in fact, be essential to its long-term survival.
In 2001, UNESCO recognized such position in its General Conference &
asserted in its Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity that “...cultural
diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”.
Unit 5: Inter-Ethnic Relations, Identity….….
Today, countries, workplaces, & schools are ever more made up of different cultural, racial, & ethnic groups.
By acknowledging & learning about these different groups, communities make trust, respect, & understand
across all cultures.
Different communities & organizations in various settings can benefit from the different backgrounds, skills,
experiences, & new ways of thinking that come with cultural diversity.