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SAT Math Notes
This is a comprehensive guide of the math you need to know for the SAT Math Section. It includes step-by-step examples for how to
solve for all of the key topics and question types you will encounter.

Keep an eye out for the USEFUL TIPS since they could give you hints for how to solve problems more quickly, even for some of the
questions with basic content.

The SAT math section includes problems from the following four general categories, with more specific topics included in each category,
as shown below:

Characteristic Reading and Writing section Math section

Administration Two-stage adaptive design; this section Two-stage adaptive design: this section contains
contains two separately timed modules two separately timed modules

Number of questions 54 questions; 25 questions in each 44 questions; 20 questions in each module with 2 pretest
module with 2 pretest question question

Time 64 minutes 70 minutes

Time per question 1.19 minutes 1.59 minutes

Time per module 32minutes 35 minutes

Content domains Information and Ideas, Craft and Algebra, Advanced Math, Problem- Solving and Data
Structure. Expression of ideas. Analysis,
Standard English Conventions Geometry and Trigonometry

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The table below summarizes the specifications of the types of questions and their distribution in the Math section.

Content Domain. Skill/Knowledge

Question Distribution
Algebra
● Linear equations in one variable 13-15 questions (35%)
● Linear equations in two variables
● Linear functions
● Systems of two linear equations in two variables
● .Linear inequalities in one or two variables
Advanced Math
● Equivalent expressions 13-15 questions (35%)
● Nonlinear equations in one variable and systems of equations in
two variables
● Nonlinear functions
Problem-Solving
● Ratios, rates, proportional relationships and units 5-7 questions (15%)
and Data Analysis
● Percentages
● One-variable data: distributions and measures of center and
spread
● Two-variable data: models and scatterplots
● Probability and conditional probability
● Inference from sample statistics and margin of error
● Evaluating statistical claims: observational studies and
experiments
Geometry and
● Area and volume 5-7 questions (15%)
Trigonometry
● Lines, angles, and triangles
● Right triangles and trigonometry

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 ● Circles
● Unit circle (***)

Tips for the Math Section

You would find these tips helpful when preparing for your Digital SAT Math test:

• Always read the SAT Math questions understandably before you start answering them. You don't want to waste your limited time providing answers to
questions you vaguely understand.

• Pay attention to the choices for each question. Based on your prior knowledge of similar math questions in high school, you may be able to
quickly eliminate some incorrect answers while looking for the most correct answer in the choices. This practice will also help you to save time
that you can use for solving other difficult questions.

• If a math question seems very difficult for you on the first try, do not waste your time thinking about how you could solve it; move straight to
the next question.

• Skip over questions that appear to be too wordy. You could come back later to attempt them after you have successfully completed the ones with
shorter content

• As calculators are now allowed in the Math section, it will help you arrive at the answers more quickly. However, you will still need to depend
on your knowledge of arithmetic to successfully use it. Do not be overconfident about the benefits of using a calculator during your test because
it may give you a wrong answer and a false hope. So, it is advisable that you use it responsibly and creatively in order to make sure that the
answers you are getting are all correct

• Getting a high score on the SAT math test depends on your preparations before the test. This is why it is very important that you try your hand at
several practice math questions before taking the real Digital SAT test. You will be able to identify the most probable answers to some of the
related questions you will be seeing while taking the real SAT test itself.

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 • Pay serious attention to numbers, mathematical signs, and expressions. If you make any mistake calculating with a wrong [Link] sign,
for example, you can expect that your final answer will be wrong.

• In a situation in which you obtained two answers for the same question. You can quickly redo your calculations and eventually discover
which is more correct. Enter ONLY one of the most appropriate answer for each question.

• Use DESMOS

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1) Heart of Algebra
The Heart of Algebra problems make up 13-15 of 44 questions, or roughly 35% of the entire math section.
The main topics include:

● Linear equations and inequalities

● Interpreting linear functions
● Systems of linear equations and inequalities
● Basic function notation
● Absolute value functions

Order of Operations

2) Forms of Linear Equations for Graphing

Linear equations can be expressed in the forms shown below.
*Note: The word "output" is interchangeable with the word "height."

Slope-Intercept Form Slope Formula Standard Form

m = slope or rate m = slope

(The change in output for every increase of 1 (see Example 2 below)
for the input.) USEFUL TIP:
● Change in height divided by change in If y is isolated for the standard form, the
b = y-intercept horizontal distance. equation becomes:
(see Example 1 below) ● "Rise over run."

(For graphs: The output when x = 0) x1 and x2 = given x values where -A/B is the slope,
y1 and y2 = given y values and C/B is the y-intercept.

x = input value of the function *This form is often used to find the slope when
y = output value of the function
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 two points are known.

USEFUL TIP: If it's given that the line goes through the origin, you know that (0, 0) is one of the points on that line, so you can often use
that information to get to the answer (see example 3 below).

Example 1.
The y-intercept is always at
(0, b) for y = mx + b. Note that Example 2. Example 3. Example 4.
the y-axis is the line x = 0, so the Visualization of the "rise" and "run" When it's given that the line goes If the coordinates are given as
x value will always be 0 for the of a slope, represented by y2 - y1, and through the origin, you can often use variables, use them as you would
y-intercept of a graph. x2 - x1, respectively. (0, 0) as a point to help solve the numbers to find the slope or other
By plugging in 0 for x for problem. values of a line.
y = mx + b, you get
y = m(x) + b. Therefore, y = b
when x = 0.

Interpreting Linear Equations

On the SAT you may need to interpret the meaning of part of a linear equation or its graph in the context of the situation it
represents. For problems where the equation is given, it could be of the form y = mx + b, or it could be written in a different form that still
represents a linear equation. Variables other than x and y might be used as well.

Imagine this scenario: Betty is selling popcorn at a school event. She spent $12 on cotton candy ingredients and supplies in total, and
she is charging $1.50 per cotton candy that she sells, where p is the profit she earns and c is the number of cotton candies sold.
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Below are some ways that p as a function of c may be expressed for this situation.

Those 5 equations all represent the same function, and there are even more ways to rewrite the function. For interpreting linear
functions, you will typically have to figure out whether a given part of the function represents the rate or initial condition of a situation.

For example, if the function is written as:

What is the best interpretation of the number -12 in the equation?

A) Betty loses $12 for every cotton candy that she sells.
B) It cost Betty $12 originally to set up her operation.
C) Betty will need to sell 12 cotton candies to break even.
D) There are 12 cotton candies left for Betty to sell.

Answer: B
Explanation: When Betty has sold 0 cotton candies, c = 0. By plugging in 0 for the variable c in the equation, p = -12. This means that
her profit when she started is -12 dollars. In other words, she has spent 12 dollars before selling any cotton candies.

USEFUL TIP: If you're having trouble interpreting parts of a linear function because of its form, take a few moments to rewrite it in the
form y = mx + b (slope-intercept form) so that you can quickly tell what the parts of the equation represent.

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Finding the Rate:

● It is the value being multiplied by the input variable (the variable on the x-axis) for slope-intercept form.
● For graphs, it is the value of the slope.
● In each of the five equations above, p increases by 1.5, or 3/2, for each increase of 1 for c. Therefore, the rate of change of p in
terms of c is 1.5, or 3/2.

Finding the Initial/Starting Condition (Initial Output):

● It is the constant on the side with the input variable for slope-intercept form.
● For graphs, it is the y-intercept.
● In the equations above, p = -12 when c = 0. Therefore, the profit is -12 dollars when 0 cotton candies are sold.

Slopes of Linear Equations

Slopes of horizontal lines are 0. Slopes of vertical lines are Slopes of parallel lines are equal. Slopes of perpendicular lines are
undefined. negative reciprocals.
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 For example: 5/3 and -3/5.

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3) Systems of Linear Equations
Systems of linear equations are two or more lines that are graphed simultaneously. Solutions for systems of equations are the points
where the graphs intersect. There are three possible types of solutions for systems of linear equations.

One solution: The lines intersect at one point. No solutions: The lines intersect nowhere. Infinite Solutions: The lines intersect at
infinite points (they are overlapping lines).
● If the slopes of two lines are different, ● If the slopes of two lines are the same
they will have exactly one solution. (they are parallel) but the y-intercept is ● If the slopes and y-intercepts are the
different, they will have no solutions. same for both lines, they will have
infinite solutions.
More about Infinite Solutions

● If each of the coefficients and constants of one linear equation are proportional to the corresponding coefficients or constants of
another linear equation, the lines will have infinite solutions.
● For example: -2x + 3y = 9 and -4x + 6y = 18 will have infinite solutions because the second equation's coefficients and constant
are all twice the value of the first equation's.
● Written in y = mx + b form, both equations could be rewritten as y = (2/3)x + 3. In other words, they are the same line.

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Graphing Linear Equations
Graphed lines will go through at most only 3 quadrants.

Lines with positive slopes with a positive y-intercept will go through quadrants Lines with negative slopes with a positive y-intercept will go through
I, II, and III, but will not go through quadrant IV. quadrants I, II, and IV, but will not go through quadrant III.
Lines with positive slopes with a negative y-intercept will go through Lines with negative slopes with a negative y-intercept will go through
quadrants I, III, and IV, but will not go through quadrant II. quadrants II, III, and IV, but will not go through quadrant I.

USEFUL TIP: If a linear graph is given where you need to determine either the slope or y-intercept, make sure to check the scale of the
axes. There may be times when one axis uses different units than another. For example, each mark on the x-axis may represent a unit
of 1, however, each mark on the y-axis may represent a unit of 5. It is fairly common for graphs on the SAT to use different scales for
the different axes, and not noticing this will likely result in an incorrect choice.

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Solving Systems of Equations
As mentioned above, the solution to a system of equations is the point or points where two lines intersect. If you're given two lines in
either the slope-intercept form (y = mx + b) or standard form (Ax + By = C), you can solve for the places the lines intersect by either
the Combination Method (sometimes called the Elimination Method); the Substitution Method or Graphing method (Desmos)

Elimination Method
Substitution Method
Desmos

4) Function Notation Basics

Function notation is a slightly different method of writing equations than we've discussed so far. In basic function notation f(x) (read "f of
x") represents the output of a function. The x inside the parenthesis represents the input of the function. In the regular x and y
coordinate graphing system, f(x) takes the place of y, the graph's output

For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation equivalent of y = 2x - 5.

And y = -3x + 8 could be written as f(x) = -3x + 8 in function notation.

Although f(x) = "expression" is the basic form of function notation, other letters besides f and x can also be used, just as linear equations
can be written with variables other than x and y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be rewritten as h = 4s + 3, where both y and h refer to
the output, and x and s refer to the input of a linear function. Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all refer to a
function where the input is multiplied by 4 and then 3 is added to the value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This function states
that the input is multiplied by 5 and then 8 is added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means that by inputting 2 into the
function, the output is 18. We can check this: f(2) = 5(2) + 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.

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5) Linear Inequalities in One Variable
Graphing Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When graphing linear inequalities, the collection of all points that make the inequality true are plotted on a number line. For "greater
than" or "less than" inequalities, there will be an open (not filled in) point. On the other hand, for "greater than or equal to" or "less than
or equal to" inequalities, the corresponding point is closed (filled in).

There is an open (not filled in) circle at x = 3. There is a closed (filled in) circle at x = 3.
This might be a representation of the sentence: This might be a representation of the sentence:
"He has more than three dollars." "He has at least three dollars."

Notice the difference between these two graphs: the "greater than" graph is not filled at the point x = 3 since plugging in 3 for x would not
make the inequality true. 3 is not greater than 3. However, for the "greater than or equal to" graph, plugging in 3 for x would still make
the inequality true since 3 is greater than OR EQUAL TO 3.

For graphs that are "less than" or "less than or equal to," the graph would be filled in on points to the left of a specific value instead of to
the right as shown above.

Solving for Linear Inequalities in One Variable

When solving for an inequality, use the same process as solving for a variable in an equation until the variable is isolated. The one
major difference is that when multiplying or diving by a negative value, you need to reverse the direction of the inequality sign.

Example 1: Example 2:
2x + 5 > 17 -4x - 2 ≤ 6 or Desmos
Subtract 5. Add 2.
2x > 12 -4x ≤ 8
Divide by 2. Divide by -4 and reverse the inequality sign.

x>6 x ≥ -2

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6) Linear Inequalities in Two Variables
The solution to linear inequalities graphed on an xy-plane is the shaded region of points that make the inequality true. You should be careful to note
whether the region to shade should be above or below a certain line and whether the line itself should be a solid line or a dotted line.

Choosing which Region to Shade

● If the inequality starts as y > ... or y ≥ ... then the region above the line is shaded (for "greater than" or "greater than or equal to").
● If the inequality starts as y < ... or y ≤ ... then the region below the line is shaded (for "less than" or "less than or equal to").

Choosing the Type of Line

● If the inequality starts as y > ... or y < ... then the line is dotted, since the values for x and y on the line itself do not make the inequality true
(for "greater than" or "less than").
● If the inequality starts as y ≥ ... or y ≤ ... then the line is solid, since the values for x and y on the line itself make the inequality true (for
"greater than or equal to" or "less than or equal to").

y > 2x + 3 y ≥ 2x + 3 y < 2x + 3 y ≤ 2x + 3
The line is dotted since points on the The line is filled in since points on The line is dotted since points on the The line is filled in since points on
line do not make the inequality the line make the inequality line do not make the inequality the line make the inequality
true. The region above the line is true. The region above the line is true. The region below the line is true. The region below the line is
shaded since y (the height) is greater shaded since y (the height) is greater shaded since y (the height) is less shaded since y (the height) is less
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 than the line. than or equal to the line. than the line. than or equal to the line.

7) Systems of Linear Inequalities

The solution to a system of linear inequalities is the region of points where both inequalities are true at the same time. Two inequalities are graphed
together below that illustrates this idea. The inequalities are y ≤ 3x + 1 and y > -x + 2.

y ≤ 3x + 1 y > -x + 2 y ≤ 3x + 1 and y > -x + 2 graphed together. The

solution is the overlapping region.

8) Absolute Value
Absolute value refers to the magnitude of a value, regardless of its sign. In other words, it is the distance of a value from 0, no matter which direction
it is. The symbol for absolute value is two vertical lines. The absolute of x is written as |x|.

For example, the absolute value of -3 is 3 because -3 is 3 units away from 0. This could be written using math symbols as |-3| = 3. On the other
hand, 3 is also 3 units away from 0. So |3| = 3 is also true. |-3| = 3 and |3| = 3.

In the equation |x + 6| = 2, there are two possible solutions for x. Think about it this way: if the expression inside the absolute value sign is equal
to either 2 or -2, the equation is true. So to solve for x, we can set up two different equations: x + 6 = 2 or x + 6 = -2.

By solving for the two equations, we get x = -4 or x = -8.

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9) Distance-Rate-Time and Work-Rate-Time Problems
The relationship between distance, rate, and time is essentially the same as the relationship between work, rate, and time.
Distance - Rate - Time Work - Rate - Time

Making sense of the equation: If you were to run at 10 miles an hour for Similarly to the D-R-T example, if you were to paint 10 walls an hour
2 hours, you would run 10 miles per hour times 2 hours, or 20 miles for 2 hours, you would paint 10 walls per hour times 2 hours, or 20
total. walls total.

If you are given two parts of a D-R-T problem, rewrite d = rt to solve If you are given two parts of a W-R-T problem, rewrite w = rt to solve
for the remaining variable. for the remaining variable.

● d = rt (use if given the rate and time and you need the distance) ● w = rt (use if given the rate and time and you need the work)
● r = d/t (use if given the distance and time and you need the rate) ● r = w/t (use if given the work and time and you need the rate)
● t = d/r (use if given the distance and rate and you need the time) ● t = w/r (use if given the work and rate and you need the time)
●
10) Problem Solving and Data Analysis
The Problem Solving and Data Analysis problems are only on the Calculator Section of the SAT. The make up 17 of 58 questions, or
roughly 29.3% of the entire math section. The main topics include:

● Ratios, rates, and proportions

● Percentages
● Units
● Linear and exponential growth
● Reading table data and graphs
● Data collection, inference, and conclusions

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11) Ratios
A ratio is a comparison of one value to another. It can be written as a fraction, such as 3/4, or with a colon, such as 3:4. Ratios are
typically used to compare parts to parts, or parts to wholes.

For example, if you need to make a fruit smoothie that uses 2 strawberries, 5 raspberries, and 6 blueberries, the ratio of strawberries to
raspberries would be 2:5 (part to part). The ratio of strawberries to fruit would be 2:13 (part to whole).

USEFUL TIP: If a ratio is given not in its fraction form, turn it into the fraction form first since it will often be easier to use that form to
solve a problem.

12) Rates
Rates are ratios that compare ratios involving two different units of measurement. They often involve time as a unit. When dealing with
anything that says, "per minute," "per week," per year," etc., that is a rate.

Rates involving units of time: Rates involving units other than time:

● The car drove 45 miles per hour. (45 miles / 1 hour) ●

The club earned $24 for each customer. ($24 / 1 customer)
● She wrote 5 essays each week. (5 essays / 1 week) ● Each carton has 10 eggs. (10 eggs / carton)
● He grew 5 inches in 2 years. (5 inches / 2 years) ● They need 15 markers for a group of 4 people. (15 markers / 4
people)
As you can see in the examples above, the denominator of a rate might not always be a unit of 1.

USEFUL TIP: When asked to find a rate, make sure to carefully check the units and cancel common factors. For example, if revenue
increases by $45,000 over 3 years, both the numerator and denominator have a factor of 3 that can cancel. The simplified rate would be
$45,000 / 3 years = $15,000 / 1 year.

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Unit Rates

Unit rates are rates in which the denominator is written in terms of a unit of 1. For example, 55 miles per hour is a unit rate because it
means that an object moves at a rate of 55 miles in one hour.

To convert a rate into a unit rate, divide both the numerator and denominator by the value in the denominator.

Example:

A hot air balloon rises 74 meters in 4 minutes. What is the unit rate for its speed of ascent?
Write the original rate.

Divide the numerator and denominator by the value of the denominator so that the new denominator becomes 1 of that unit (in other
words, it converts it into the unit rate).

The answer can be read as "18.5 meters per minute."

Density as a Unit Rate

Density is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume and is typically given as a unit rate.

Example:

If the density of liquid mercury is 13.56 grams per cubic centimeter, would an object that has a mass of 127 grams and takes up 9.2
cubic centimeters float or sink in the mercury?

In order to solve this, you need to determine whether the object's density is greater or less than that of the liquid mercury's.
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The object's density is slightly greater than that of the liquid mercury, so it will sink.

13) Proportions
Proportions are two or more ratios that are equal. Ratios are proportional if they are equal. Here are examples of proportions:

Notice that there can be more than two equal ratios in a proportion, and variables can also be used.

Proportions can often be solved by "cross multiplying." To cross multiply means to multiply the numerator of one fraction by the
denominator of the other fraction and set that equal to the denominator of the first fraction being multiplied by the numerator of the
second fraction. This works because if you multiply both sides of the original equation by both denominators, the denominators will
cancel out as shown below:

This shows the Divide by 4.

Multiply both Cancel out the same (Previous step shown) original equation
sides by both factors in the numerator when it is cross
denominators. and denominator on each multiplied.
side. Next, multiply 3
by 12.
In the example above, if you were to start by cross multiplying, you would multiply x times 4 and set that equal to 3 times 12: 4x = 3•12.
This is a good method to use on the SAT to save time.

USEFUL TIP: Solve for proportions by cross multiplying. (Just make sure you understand why it works!)
Another way to deal with a proportion when the unknown value is in the numerator is to multiply both sides by the denominator of the
side with the unknown value. The next problem shows this method.

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Example:

If a man drives 270 miles in 6 hours, at the same rate, how far will he drive in 10 hours?

Remember that proportions are equal ratios, or equal rates. In this scenario, we are dealing with rates. One rate is 270 miles / 6
hours. In the other rate, we aren't given the number of miles, but we are given the number of hours, so we can use a variable to
represent the unknown number of miles and divide it by 10 hours, which becomes x / 10 hours. Then we can set these rates equal to
each other to solve for the unknown value:

Multiply both sides by 10 hours (which is the denominator on the side with the unknown value).

Cancel out 10 hours in the numerator and denominator on the right side.

Cancel out the unit "hours" on the top and bottom on the left side, and simplify 270 / 6 to be 45 / 1.

Simplify the left side.

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14) Unit Conversions

The key to unit conversions is to make sure that equivalent values are substituted accurately and that units cancel properly during the
conversion process.

15) Percentages
A percentage is a ratio that means "per 100" or "out of 100." For example, 32 percent (32%) means 32 out of 100.

It's often useful to use the decimal version of a percentage when calculating. To turn a percentage into a decimal, divide the percentage
number by 100. For example, 57% = 57/100 = 0.57.

To convert between percentages and fractions, use the formula:

Here are some example problems involving percentages, some which use a variation of the formula above.

Formula Example Situation Calculation

What is 42% of $280?

What percent of 60 is 24?

If a computer's old version cost $800 when

it came out, but the new version costs
$920, what percent increase is the new (This means the price increased by 15%).
version's price compared to the old
version?

If a jacket is on sale for 20% off and

originally cost $85, what is the new
price? (Note: The percentage change is -20%,
since it is 20% less than the original
price.)

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16) Scatterplots
Graphs of Scatterplots

Scatterplots are graphs that typically include these characteristics:

● Data points are plotted on an xy-grid.

● The x and y values represent different units.
● They are often used to find trends or patterns in data with two variables.
●

This scatterplot shows the height of 8 people plotted against their age. The x-axis represents age in years, and the y-axis represents
height in feet. The data point in blue has coordinates (15, 5.5), which means that person is 15 years old and 5.5 feet tall.

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17) Best-fit Line and Best-fit Curve
An equation that most closely describes the points on a scatterplot is called a best-fit line (for linear models) and a best-fit curve (for non-
linear models).
Here is some information you should know about best-fit lines or curves:

● They often do not go through all of the points.

● They do not need to go through any of the points.
● They can be used to estimate where a certain point may be, even though there may not be a point there.

Best-fit Line Best-fit Curve

● Above, the best-fit line is graphed with the data points. ● Above, the best-fit curve is graphed with the same data points as
● This line only represents an estimate of where points may be the previous scatterplot.
based on the patterns of the data. ● Notice how the curve seems to fit the points more closely than
● Best-fit Equations are equation that describes the best-fit line. the best-fit line in this case.

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 ● In this case, the best-fit equation can be written as: y = 0.14x + ● As this best-fit curve shows, the data is better described by an
3.2. equation that has the height starting to level off after a certain
● Interpreting the best-fit equation: The equation for the best-fit age rather than continuing to increase with age.
line has a y-intercept of 3.2 and slope of 0.14. This means that ● This type of graph shown may be modeled by some type of
the line estimates the initial height (when people are 0 years old) exponential or power function (more about types of best-fit
to be 3.2 feet, and that every year they will grow 0.14 feet. curves further below).
o Using this equation, a 12 year old would be predicted to
be:
▪ 0.14(12) + 3.2 = 4.88 feet tall. This is a fairly
reasonable estimate.
o However, the model is not a good estimate for other age
ranges:
▪ Babies are not born being as tall as 3.2 feet as
this equation predicts.
▪ And with this equation, a person 50 years old
would be estimated to be a height of 0.14(50) +
3.2 = 39 feet tall!
o Therefore, it's important to keep in mind that best-fit
equations may only be useful for modeling situations for
certain input values, but not others. In particular, they
may not give good estimates when you input numbers
outside of the least and greatest input values (x values)
from the original data.

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18) Modeling Data
The relationship between two variables can be expressed as an equation that allows you to make a prediction or draw conclusions about
the data. Here are three types of models that you are most likely to come across.

Linear Quadratic Exponential

In a linear model, the values increase when the In a quadratic model, the shape looks roughly like An exponential function will be a curve where one
slope is positive. The values decrease when the a "U" and the values change from decreasing to side "flattens out" while the other side either shoots
slope is negative. increasing or vice versa. When the coefficient of up or down more and more quickly. Unlike the
Form of the x^2 value is positive, the graph opens up and quadratic model, the values for an exponential
equation: will have a minimum point, as shown function do not change direction and there is no
m: slope or rate of change above. When the coefficient of the x^2 value is vertex.
b: initial amount (the y-intercept) negative, the graph open down and will have a Form of
maximum point. The maximum or minimum point equation:
of a parabola is called the vertex. a: the initial amount (output value when x = 0)
Form of b: common ratio (determines the ratio of one
equation: output value to the previous value each time x is
a: if positive the graph opens up, and if negative increased by 1)
the graph opens down

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19) Association
The association of a model to data describes how closely the data fits the model. If the data fits the model closely, it is called a strong
association. If it fits somewhat, it is called a weak association. There is no association if the data does not fit the model at
all. Additionally, for linear models, if the model has a positive slope, the association is also called positive. If the model has a negative
slope, the association is also called negative.

Below are five associations for linear models.

Strong positive Weaker positive No association Weaker negative Strong negative

association association association association

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20) Table Data

Table data presented as two-way tables allow you to calculate the relative frequency or the conditional probability of an event. The
relative frequency is the percentage a sub-group is of the larger group. And a conditional probability is the probability of an event
occurring given that some other aspect is already known to be true.
Let's use this hypothetical situation and the table below to calculate such values: 127 people in a town answered a survey about their
age and whether or not they had travelled abroad. The answers are reported in this two-way table.
18 = the number of people younger than 20 who have travelled abroad.
27 = the number of people 20 or older who have travelled abroad.
45 = the total number of people who have travelled abroad.

44 = the number of people younger than 20 who have not travelled

abroad.
38 = the number of people 20 or older who have not travelled abroad.
82 = the total number of people who have not travelled abroad.

62 = the total number of people under 20.

The rows on the left shows the travel status, while the two middle 65 = the total number of people 20 or older.
columns show the age. The totals of each column and row are shown in 127 = the total number of people who responded to the survey.
the margins.
Approximately what percent of the If a person is chosen at random from Those who have travelled abroad or are under 20 make up what
respondents have never travelled abroad? those who have travelled abroad, what is fraction of the total respondents?
the probability that they are 20 or older? Solution:
Solution: The number of people who have travelled abroad is 45. Those under
Take the number of people who have never Solution: 20 make up 62 of the people. However, it is important to realize that
travelled abroad and divide it by the total We will only deal with people who have there is an overlapping group here. 18 of the people who have
number of people. travelled abroad for this problem. Take the travelled abroad are also under 20. We don't want to count them
twice.
number of people who are 20 or older who
82 / 127 is approximately .6456 or 65%. have travelled abroad and divide it by the Therefore, to calculate the answer, we need to add the number of
This is a relative frequency. total number of people who have travelled people who have travelled abroad with those under 20, and then
abroad. subtract 18 so that we don't double-count the overlap.
Travelled abroad (45) + under 20 (62) - travelled abroad AND under
20 (18) = 45 + 62 - 18 = 89.
27 / 45 = 0.6 or 60%. Finally, we need to divide this number by the total number of people
This is a conditional probability. to find the fraction who have travelled abroad or are under 20.
89 / 127

28
21) Statistics

You'll want to know the basics of statistics for the SAT, including how to calculate certain statistical values and the meaning of others in
the context of a problem. You should know how to calculate the value for the mean, median, mode, and range of a set of data. Let's
use this set of data to calculate those four values: 5, 8, 8, 8, 10, 13, 13, 16, 18
Term Definition Calculation / How to Find the Value
Mean The sum of values divided by the number of values.
(Arithmetic Average)

Median The value in a middle of a set of numbers when they are There are 9 numbers in this set. Therefore, the middle
arranged from least to greatest. If there is an even value is the fifth number since there are four numbers both
number of terms, take the mean of the two middle terms. below and above the fifth number. The fifth number in this
set is 10.
Mode The number that appears the most frequently in a set. 8 is the mode in this set since it appears three times, which
is more than any other number appears.

Range The difference between the greatest and least value. To 18 is the maximum, and 5 is the minimum.
find the range, calculate the maximum minus the The range is 18 - 5 = 13.
minimum.
You should also understand what standard deviation, confidence intervals, and measurement error are to answer certain questions, but
you will not need to calculate their values.
Standard Deviation: A measure of how far data points are spread from the mean of the data. In general, there will be a lower
standard deviation if most values are closer to the mean than if they are farther from the mean. For example, this set of data: 8, 8, 9, 10,
12, has a smaller standard deviation than this set: 8, 12, 15, 23, 28. This is because the first set of numbers are all generally closer to
the mean than the second set of numbers.

29
Data Set A has a larger standard deviation than Data Set B since the values are spread farther from the mean in general for Data Set A
than for Data Set B.
Confidence Intervals: Confidence intervals contain two components: an interval between which a data value is expected to be found
and the probability that it will be in that interval. For example, after studying the traffic flow at a certain stop light, it was found that there
would be between 410 to 530 cars (the interval) that drive through the light in a day for 95% of days (the probability). Based on this
confidence interval, it would be highly likely that on any given day there would be between 410 to 530 cars that drive through the light
and a low probability that there would either be less than 410 cars or more than 530 cars that drive through the light.

Measurement Error: The difference between a measured value of quantity and its true measurement. Measurement errors are
either:

1. Random errors that occur while taking measurements (such as a person accidentally filling out the wrong age).
2. Problems with the way data are collected that causes inaccurate results (such as trying to find the average age of people in a
town but only asking people at a university, which would not be a representative sample of everyone in the town).

Random errors are often difficult to anticipate and avoid, but care should be taken to collect data in a way that can find accurate or
representative answers of the matter being studied.
Data Inferences
Making data inferences means to deduce properties, or make probable guesses, about a population (the entire group) being studied
based on the data taken from a sample (a portion of the population). In order to make accurate data inferences, it's important that the
data is taken in a way that would accurately reflect the overall population.

Here are a few general guidelines that should be followed in order to make accurate data inferences.

Sample Size: In general, a sample size of 30 is considered large enough to make fairly accurate calculations for any size
30
population. That said, the larger the sample, the more accurate the statistics are that can be calculated from it.

Randomization: To be a representative sample of a population, the participants of a sample should be chosen using randomizing
techniques to avoid bias.

Passport to Advanced Mathematics

The Passport to Advanced Mathematics problems make up 16 of 58 questions, or roughly 27.6% of the entire math section. The main
topics include:

● Polynomial factors, graphs, and operations

● Quadratic, exponential, radical, and rational equations and expressions
● Radical and rational exponents
● Structure in expressions and isolating quantities
● Function notation

22) Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression with one or more terms consisting of variables that have non-negative integer exponents. They can also
have coefficients for each term with a variable. Here are some examples of polynomials.

Each of the polynomials above have x as the variable, but polynomials could have different variables than x as well.

Also, polynomials are typically written with their exponents in descending order. As you can see with the polynomials above, the first
term has the greatest power, with each following terms having a lesser power than the one before it. They don't need to be written in
this order, but keeping the way you write polynomials consistent can help in determining key features that they have.

Adding Polynomials Subtracting Polynomials

To add two or more polynomials, all you need to do is combine like Subtracting polynomials is very similar to adding them. Just make sure
terms. to be careful of distributing a negative sign if necessary.
Below are two polynomials being added, each contained within

31
 parenthesis to distinguish them. Distribute the negative sign to the terms in the second polynomial and
take everything out of the parenthesis.
Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in
descending order of powers. Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in
descending order of powers.
Combine like terms.
Combine like terms.

32
Multiplying Polynomials
When multiplying polynomials, each term of one polynomial needs to be multiplied by each term of the other polynomial. Then the like
terms can be combined.

Multiplying Two Binomials Multiplying Other Polynomials

For multiplying two binomials (polynomials with two terms) such as for For multiplying polynomials that are not two binomials, make sure each
the example below, it can be helpful to remember to multiply the terms term of one polynomial is multiplied by each term of the other
in the order FOIL: First, Outside, Inside, Last. polynomial. If one polynomial has two terms and the other being
multiplied has three terms, there should be a total of 2 x 3 = 6 terms
Multiply the terms using the FOIL method. created before combining like terms. This type of example is shown
below.

Both x and 4 need to be multiplied by x^2, -2x, and 5.

Combine like terms.

Rewrite the expression by placing like terms next to each other and in
descending order of powers.

Combine like terms.

33
Polynomial Factors and Zeros
The zeros of a polynomial are the values for x that make the
polynomial equal to 0. Other names for the zeros are the x-
intercepts, roots, or solutions of the polynomial.

The graph of the polynomial shown has three zeros.

They are x = -1, x = 1, and x = 3.

In order to find the zeros of a polynomial, it is useful to have the polynomial in factored form. Let's start with factoring the quadratic
polynomial below.

This quadratic expression will factor into two binomials. Since the first term is x^2, we can assume that there will be an x in both
binomials. At this point we assume the factored form will look something like (x + ?)(x + ?), and we need to find the numbers (called
constants) that go in each parenthesis.
Since the constant of the original polynomial is -15, we know that the two constants from the factored form will multiply to -15 when we
FOIL. We also know that x is multiplied by each constant, and the original polynomial had a total of 2x. 2x is the value we will get when we
combine like terms, which will be our terms with x in them.
This tells us that the two constants will multiply to -15 and add up to 2. To find these numbers, we can think of factors of -15, and see which
add up to 2. The only possible pair is -3 and 5. Therefore, the factored form of the quadratic is (x - 3)(x + 5).

To check if this is in fact true, you can use the FOIL method described above to see if the factored form is equivalent to the original quadratic
expression.

Finally, to find the zeros of the polynomial, we can use the factored form and set each factor equal to 0 to solve for what values of x make the
polynomial equal to 0. Since the zeros (or x-intercepts or roots) are what values of x makes the polynomial equal to 0
we can write 0 = (x - 3)(x + 5).
If either (x - 3) or (x + 5) equals 0, the whole polynomial will equal 0 since the factors are being multiplied by each other. To find the zeros for
this quadratic:

● x - 3 = 0, therefore x = 3
● x + 5 = 0, therefore x = -5

The two zeros for x^2 + 2x -15 are x = 3 or x = -5.

34
 Possible Number of Zeros

A polynomial can have at most the same number of zeros as the highest degree of the variable. For example, a quadratic function,
which has 2 as the greatest exponent, will have at most 2 zeros. A cubic function, which has 3 as the greatest exponent, will have at
most 3 zeros. However, this does not mean that the graph has to have that many zeros.

A function with an odd number as the highest power must have at least 1 zero or as many as up to the highest power. For example,
a cubic equation (which has degree 3) could have 1, 2, or 3 zeros.

A function with an even number as the highest power could have no zeros or as many as the up to the highest power. For example, a
quartic equation (which has degree 4), could have 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 zeros.

Single zeros (single roots) will "cross" the x-intercept at the zero. For example, for the graph of y = (x - 5)(x - 6), the graph will cross
the x-axis at the points x = 5 and x = 6. However, for double zeros (double roots), the graph will not cross the x-axis but will simply
"bounce" back from the direction it came. For example, y = (x - 3)(x - 3) has a double root at x = 3. In this case, the graph will come
down to touch the x-axis at x = 3 and go back up after that point, but will not cross the x-axis.

In general, single or any odd number of roots at a particular point will cross the x-axis, while double or any even number of roots at a
particular point will bounce back from the direction the graph approached the x-axis.

This function has two single roots. They each cross the x-axis. This function has a double root. It bounces back at the x-axis.
This might be the graph of a function such as This might be the graph of a function such as
y = (x - 1)(x - 3). y = (x - 2)(x - 2) = (x - 2)^2.

35
23) Remainder Theorem
What is the Remainder Theorem?

The remainder theorem states that when a polynomial p(x) is divided by a

linear polynomial (x - a), then the remainder is equal to p(a). The remainder
theorem enables us to calculate the remainder of the division of any
polynomial by a linear polynomial, without actually carrying out the steps of the
long division.

Note that the degree of the remainder polynomial is always 1 less than the
degree of the divisor polynomial. Using this fact, when any polynomial is
divided by a linear polynomial (whose degree is 1), the remainder must be
a constant (whose degree is 0).

A polynomial function of f has x+8 as a factor. Which of the following must be true about the function of f?
I. f(0) = 8
II. f(8) = 0
III. f(−8)=0

A) I only
B) II only
C) III only
D) II and III only

The answer is C.

36
24) Quadratic Equations

There are 3 forms of quadratic equations that you should be familiar with and know how to find the vertex and x-intercepts (a.k.a. zeros,
roots, or solutions) for. The vertex is the maximum or minimum of the parabola. The x-intercepts are the values you would input for x to
make the height equal to 0. That is, y = 0 or f(x) = 0 at the x-intercepts.

For all of the forms below, when the "a" value is positive, the parabola opens up and it will have a minimum, as shown in the
images. When the "a" value is negative, the parabola opens down and it will have a maximum.
Vertex Form

● This form shows the vertex as constants

(numbers) in the equation.
● The vertex is the point (h, k).
● To solve for the x-intercepts, set y
equal to 0 and algebraically solve for x
by applying the following steps to both
sides:
o subtract k
o divide by a
o take the square root (and
include the plus or minus sign
on the opposite side of the
equation that x is on)
o add h

● USEFUL TIP: If you are given the vertex coordinates and one other point of a parabola, you can find the equation of the parabola by solving for the "a"
value of the vertex form. In order to do this, substitute the vertex coordinates for h and k, substitute the coordinates of the other point in for x and y, and
then the only unknown value left will be "a," which you can solve for by isolating it in the equation.

37
For example, if the vertex is (3, -2) and another point on the parabola is (5, 14), then
"a" can be solved for by plugging in 3 for h, -2 for k, 5 for x, and 14 for y:

● y = a(x - h)^2 + k becomes 14 = a(5 - 3)^2 - 2

● 14 = a(2)^2 - 2
● 14 = 4a - 2
● 16 = 4a
● 4=a

Therefore, the equation for the parabola in vertex form is y = 4(x - 3)^2 - 2.

Factored Form

● This form shows the x-intercepts as constants (numbers) in the equation.

● The x-intercepts are at x = p or x = q.
o This should make sense because when either p or q is inputted for x, the value inside one of the parenthesis becomes 0, so the entire output
becomes 0.
● The vertex occurs where x is in the middle of the x-intercepts, which is at x = (p + q)/2.
o To find the y-value of the vertex, plug in (p + q)/2 for x into the equation and solve for y.
USEFUL TIP: If you are given the x-intercepts and one other point of a parabola, you can find the equation of the parabola by solving for the "a" value of the
factored form. In order to do this, substitute in the x-intercepts for p and q, substitute the coordinates of the other point in for x and y, and then the only unknown
value left will be "a," which you can solve for by isolating it in the equation.

For example, if the x-intercepts are at x = -1 and x = 5, and another point on the parabola is (6, 21), then "a" can be solved for by plugging in -1 for q, 5 for p, 6 for x,
and 21 for y.

● y = a(x - p)(x - q) becomes 21 = a(6 + 1)(6 - 5)

● 21 = a(7)(1)
● 21 = 7a
● 3=a

Therefore, the equation for the parabola in factored form is y = 3(x + 1)(x - 5).
38
Standard Form

● This form shows the y-intercept as a

constant (number) in the equation.
● The y-intercept is the value c.
● To solve for the x-intercepts, either use the
quadratic formula or factor the equation (if
possible) and use the factored form method
to find the x-intercepts.
● The vertex occurs where x = -b/(2a).
o To find the y-value of the vertex,
plug in -b/(2a) for x into the
equation and solve for y.

USEFUL TIP: Quadratics in standard form may

factor and can be rewritten in factored form. If
they do, converting the equation to a factored form
is often a faster way to solve for the x-intercepts.

39
25) Linear and Quadratic Systems
Linear and quadratic systems have solutions where their graphs intersect. To solve for such systems, first make sure both the linear
and quadratic equation has isolated one of the variables (typically y), and then set the other expressions equal to each other.

Example: Find the intersections of the following equations.

In this case, the quadratic equation is solved for y, but the linear equation isn't. The first step would be to solve for y for the linear
equation.

Set the expressions including x's equal to each other to solve for the x-coordinate of the intersection(s).

Move all the terms to one side in order to set it equal to 0 and combine like terms.

Simplify by dividing both sides by 2.

Factor.

Solve for x.

This tells us that the graphs intersect at two places: where x = 2 and where x = 7. The next step is to solve for the y value at each
intersection. Do this by plugging in 2 and 7 for x in any of the equations that involve both x and y. However, the most direct equation to
use is y = 6x -5.
When x = 2: When x = 7:

When x = 2, then y = 7. When x = 7, then y = 37. Therefore, the solution to the system are the points (2, 7) and (7, 37). In terms of
graphs, this means the line and parabola both go through the points (2, 7) and (7, 37).
For this system, we were able to solve for the quadratic equation that resulted using the standard form and then using the
factoring method. However, there are multiple variations to the types of quadratic equations you might be given originally, so make sure
to know how to efficiently solve for x using the vertex form, factored form, and standard form as described in the Quadratic Equations
section shown above.
26) Exponential Equations

40
Exponential equations represent situations where each successive output is a certain percent larger or smaller than the previous
output. For example, exponential equations could represent the amount of money in a bank account that grows by 5% more than each
previous year due to interest. Simple exponential equations such as this example could be expressed in the following form:

In the form above,

● A(t) is the total amount (or output)

● Ao is the initial amount (or amount at time = 0)
● r is the rate of change
o If the rate of change is expressed as a percentage, make sure to convert this to the decimal version of the percentage
o The equation has exponential growth when r > 0 and has exponential decay when r < 0
● t is the time passed (or input variable)

Example problem: If a bank account with $500 earns 8% annual interest and is otherwise left alone, how much money, to the nearest
cent, will be in the account after 6 years?

In this example, Ao = $500, r = 0.08 (which is 8%), and t = 6. Plug these values into A(t) = Ao(1 + r)^t to find the solution.

Some situations involving exponential functions are slightly more advanced. These include situations where:

● Case 1: the interest is compounded more than once per time interval t
● Case 2: the initial amount changes by a certain percentage during a time interval either more or less than what is represented by t

41
 For case 1 situations, use the following formula: For case 2 situations, use the following formula:

In the form above,

In the form above,
● b is the percentage of the initial amount that it becomes in c
● n is the number of times compounding occurs per time interval t. amount of time.
o For example, if the unit of time is in years, when b = 0.8
and c = 5, that means that in 5 years the initial amount
Example problem: If an account with $1,600 earns 5% interest becomes 80% of what it was.
compounded quarterly, how much interest, to the nearest cent, will the
account earn in 18 years?
Example problem: If a town's population is 24,000 people now and is
Notice that this problem is asking how much is earned by only interest, growing by 15% every 10 years, what will the population estimate be, to
not how much total money is in the account. the nearest person, in 32 years?

Since the money is compounded quarterly and t is being measured in Since the population is growing in this scenario, b is greater than 1. In
units of years, that means that n would be 4 (the money is compounded fact, it would be 1 + .15 = 1.15. Since b grows 15% every 10 years, c =
4 times per year = compounded n times per t). 10.

Ao = 1600 By using the formula above, we can say that:

r = 0.05
n=4 Ao = 24,000
t = 18 b = 1.15
t = 32
c = 10
$30,267.23 is the total amount in the account after 18 years. Since we
needed to find the amount earned solely by interest, we have to subtract Rounding to the nearest person would give an estimate of 37,536
the original $1,600 from the amount in the account to find the answer. people.

$30,267.23 - $1,600 = 28,667.23

42
27) Rules of Exponents

Rule Example Explanation

When multiplying expressions with the same base, add the
exponents.

When dividing expressions with the same base, subtract the

exponent of the denominator from the exponent of the numerator.
When raising an expression with an exponent to a power,
multiply the exponents.

When raising a product to a power, raise each factor to the

exponent.
When raising an expression to a negative exponent, it becomes
the reciprocal of the expression with its opposite power.

An expression to the power of 0 is equal to 1 if the expression

itself is not equal to 0.
Rules of Radicals
Rule Example Explanation
Factors under the radical can be separated into separate radical
expressions that are multiplied.

A quotient under a radical sign can be separated into a quotient

of two radical expressions.

Radical expressions can be combined as like terms if the

expressions under the radicals are equal.

Rational exponents can be turned into radical expressions. The

numerator from the exponent is what the radical is raised to. The
denominator from the exponent becomes the root of the radical.
Useful Tip: When taking the square root of a variable in an expression being squared, make sure to include a plus or minus sign on the opposite side of the
equation. Example:

43
28) Rational Expressions and Rational Equations
Rational expressions are fractions that contain one or more variables in the denominator. These are all examples of rational expressions:

Undefined Values: Rational equations are undefined for values of x (or the input) that make the denominator equal to 0.

For example, the equation

is undefined at the value for x that makes the denominator equal to 0. To find what that value is, set 3x - 2 = 0, and solve for x.
3x - 2 = 0
Add 2 to both sides.
3x = 2
Divide both sides by 3.
x = 2/3
Since plugging in 2/3 for x makes the denominator of the rational equation 0, the expression is undefined at x = 2/3.

USEFUL TIP: When solving for rational equations with multiple terms, you can get rid of all the denominators by multiplying both sides of the equation by the least
common multiple of all the denominators.
Example:

Multiply each term by 5x, which is the least common multiple of the denominators. This will get rid of all the denominators.

Cancel out common factors and combine like terms.

Subtract 3x^2 from both sides.

Divide both sides by 17.

Take the square root of both sides and include the plus or minus sign on the right.

44
29) Operations with Rational Expressions
Rational expressions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided. Techniques for dealing with each operation involving rational expressions are shown below.
Adding Rational Expressions Subtracting Rational Expressions

To add rational expressions, first make a common denominator and then add To subtract rational expressions, first make a common denominator and then
the numerators. find the difference of the numerators.

Make a common denominator. In this case it will be (4)(x+1). Multiply the Make a common denominator. In this case it will be (x-2)(x+6). Multiply the
numerators and denominators of both terms by the missing factors of the numerators and denominators of both terms by the missing factors of the
common denominator. common denominator.

Distribute in the numerators . Distribute in the numerators.

Add the numerators and combine like terms. Subtract the second numerator from the first numerator and add like terms. Be
careful to make sure to distribute the negative value to each term. When you
distribute the negative sign, you will get -x^2, -3x, and +10 for the numerator
of the term on the right.

USEFUL TIP: It's helpful to keep the numerators and denominators of rational expressions in factored form so that you can easily tell if factors on the top and
bottom will cancel out to leave you with a more simplified form. In the example below, you can tell that (x + 4) will cancel when the rational expression is in factored
form, but this is very difficult to notice when it is not in factored form.
Rational expression factored in the numerator and denominator: The same rational expression not factored:

It is easy to tell that the factor (x + 4) cancels out in the numerator and denominator. Unless the numerator and denominator are factored, it is hard to tell how
this rational expression will simplify.
Multiplying Rational Expressions Dividing Rational Expressions

When multiplying rational expressions: When dividing rational expressions:

● Put each numerator and denominator in factored form first.

45
 ● Next, see if any there are any common factors in the numerators that cancel
out with any factors of the denominators. ● Turn the division into a multiplication problem by multiplying
● After that, multiply across in the numerators and multiply across in the the first (or top) rational expression by the reciprocal of the
denominators. second (or bottom) rational expression.
● Then simplify by using the same methods described for
Example: multiplying rational expressions.

Example:
Put each part in factored form. In this case, 2x + 6 can be factored into 2(x+3).

Multiply the first rational expression by the reciprocal of the second.

Cancel out common factors in the numerator and denominator. In this case, x + 3
can be cancelled out.
Put each part in factored form.

Multiply across in the numerators and denominators.

Cancel common factors in the numerators and denominators.

Distribute.
Multiply across in the numerators and denominators.

Distribute.

30) Polynomial Long Division

Rational expressions can be divided using long division in a very similar way to regular long division. Some SAT math problems will require this method to rewrite a
rational expression and find an equivalent form.

Example: Use polynomial long division to rewrite the rational expression below.

Set the problem up as a long division problem.

46
The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x) goes into the leading term of the numerator (6x^2) is 3x. Therefore, write 3x above the long division
bar.

Multiply 3x by 2x - 1 to get 6x^2 - 3x and put the product under 6x^2 + 5x. Subtract 6x^2 - 3x from 6x^2 + 5x to get 8x. Then bring down the -1.

The number of times the leading term of the denominator (2x) goes into the new leading term (8x) is 4. Therefore, write +4 above the long division bar.

Multiply 4 by 2x - 1 to get 8x - 4 and put the product under 8x - 1. Subtract 8x - 4 from 8x - 1 to get 3. This is the remainder.

Since 3 is the remainder, we need to add 3/(2x - 1) to the value we have at the top. We end up with 3x + 4 + 3/(2x-1).

USEFUL TIP: Use polynomial long division to rewrite rational expressions that don't simplify by putting them in factored form and cancelling factors.
47
Function Notation (Extended from Heart of Algebra Section)

Function notation is a method of writing equations for functions. For example, f(x) = 2x - 5 is the function notation equivalent of y = 2x - 5. And y = -3x + 8 could be
written as f(x) = -3x + 8 in function notation. Function notation can also be used for quadratics or other types of functions besides linear functions, including
piecewise functions (functions with different equations for different domains that are spliced together to make one combined function).

In basic function notation f(x) (read "f of x") represents the output of a function. The x inside the parenthesis represents the input of the function. In the regular x
and y coordinate graphing system, f(x) takes the place of y, the graph's output, or height.

Although f(x) = [function expression] is the basic form of function notation, other letters besides f and x can also be used, just as linear equations can be written with
variables other than x and y. For example, y = 4x + 3 could be rewritten as h = 4s + 3, where both y and h refer to the output, and x and s refer to the input of a
linear function. Similarly, f(x) = 4x + 3 and g(x) = 4x + 3 and p(a) = 4a + 3 all refer to a function where the input is multiplied by 4 and then 3 is added to the value.

Function notation can also specify certain input and output pairs. Let's use the function f(x) = 5x + 8 as an example. This function states that the input is multiplied
by 5 and then 8 is added to the value. We could say that f(2) = 18. This means that by inputting 2 into the function, the output is 18. We can check this: f(2) = 5(2)
+ 8 = 18.

Using this same function, f(3) would mean that 3 is the input value. Therefore, f(3) = 5(3) + 8 = 23.

We could make this even more complicated by evaluating f(a + 4). Since we know the rule of function f is that the input of the function is multiplied by 5 and then 8
is added to it, here is how we can evaluate f(a + 4):

f(a + 4) = 5(a + 4) + 8 = 5a + 20 + 8 = 5a + 28.

Useful Tip: Put a parenthesis around the substituted input value before simplifying to avoid any careless mistakes or distribution errors when dealing with function
notation. Using the previous example of f(x) = 5x + 8, when evaluating f(a + 4), the (a + 4) gets substituted for x on the right side of f(x) = 5x + 8. Therefore,
substitute exactly (a + 4) with the parenthesis where the x is on the right and then simplify.

There may be more than one place a substitution needs to occur depending on the function. If h(x) = 6x - 12/x, and you were asked to evaluate h(3), you could
write: h(3) = 6(3) - 12/(3). This simplifies to 18 - 4 = 14. Notice that when evaluating h(3), (3) was substituted for each place the x was in the original equation on
the right side.

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Additional Topics in Math
The main topics include:

● Geometry: area, volume, triangles, angles, arc lengths, sector areas

● Right triangle trigonometry
● Circle equations and theorems
● Complex numbers

31) Geometry
Many of the geometry related problems on the SAT can be solved for with the reference information given on the test that is shown below.

You'll want to make sure to be very comfortable with all the formulas, and if you don't have them memorized, it would be good to do so to help save time in
answering problems. Many area and volume problems involve solving for a variable using the formulas or making an extra connection or two to get to the answer.

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32) Angle Relationships
Knowing the angle relationships below will help you more quickly solve some problems involving diagrams. Many of the explanations involve the
word congruent/congruence, so let's start with an informal definition.

Congruent means that two geometric shapes or objects are the same in size, dimensions, and angle measure (or any combination that may apply). For example,
two line segments are congruent if they are the same length. Two angles are congruent if their measures (how many degrees or radians they contain) are the
same. Two triangles are congruent if they are the same size and have the same angle measures. Shapes can be congruent even if they don't face the same
direction.
Vertical Angles
Angles are angles on directly opposite parts of the intersection of two line segments.

● Vertical angles are congruent. That is, they are always the same angle measure.

Vertical Angles
If two parallel lines are intersected by a third, non-parallel line (called a transversal), certain angle pair relationships will always be true.
Corresponding Angles

Angles in the same location relative to the intersections formed by the parallel lines and the transversal.

● Corresponding angles are congruent.

Corresponding Angles
Alternate Interior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the transversal that are on the inside (interior) of the parallel lines.

● Alternate interior angles are congruent.

Alternate Interior Angles

Alternate Exterior Angles

Angles on opposite (alternate) sides of the transversal that are on the outside (exterior) of the parallel lines.

● Alternate exterior angles are congruent.

Alternate Exterior Angles

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 Same Side Interior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that are on the inside (interior) of the parallel lines.

● Same side interior angles are supplementary.

Same Side Interior Angles

Same Side Exterior Angles

Angles on the same side of the transversal that are on the outside (exterior) of the parallel lines.

● Same side exterior angles are supplementary.

Same Side Exterior Angles

33)Proportional Shapes

If two lines are intersected by a set of parallel lines, the length of line segments If two triangles (or other polygons) are similar, corresponding angles have the
that are created will be proportional. In the case above, each segment on the same measures, but the sides are not necessarily the same length. However,
left is 3/2 times the length of the corresponding segment on the right. the corresponding sides of triangles are proportional in length. In the case
above, each side of the triangle on the left is twice the length of its
corresponding side on the right.

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34)Triangle Theorems and Properties
Triangle Sum Theorem: The three angle measures of a triangle add up to 180 degrees.

Triangle Inequality Theorem: The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is larger than the third side.

Side-Angle Relationships: The longest side is opposite the largest angle. The shortest side is opposite the shortest angle.
Isosceles Triangle Theorems (Isosceles triangles have at least two congruent sides and two congruent angles)

● Angles opposite congruent sides are congruent.

● Sides opposite congruent angles are congruent.

Exterior Angle Theorem (The exterior angle of a triangle is an angle on the outside of a triangle that makes a linear pair with an
angle on the inside of the triangle).

● An exterior angle measure is equal to the sum of the two interior angles not adjacent to it.

m<1 + m<2 = 180 - m>3.

m<4 = 180 - m>3.
Therefore, m>1 + m>2 = m>4.

34) Proving Triangle Congruence

Two triangles can be proven to be congruent if certain information about them is known. You will not be asked to make a proof of congruence, but you may need
the information listed below to answer a question related to triangle congruence.

SSS (side-side-side): If all three sides of one triangle are congruent to three SAS (side-angle-side): If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
corresponding sides of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. congruent to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.

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 ASA (angle-side-angle): If two angles and the included side are congruent to AAS (angle-angle-side): If two angles and a non-included side are congruent
the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. to the corresponding parts of another triangle, the triangles are congruent.

CPCPT: Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent. In other

words, if two triangles are shown to be congruent, any other corresponding
sides or angles will also be congruent.
Information that does NOT Prove Triangle Congruence:
HL (hypotenuse-leg): If the hypotenuse and one leg of a right triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of another right triangle, the triangles are ● AAA (angle-angle-angle): This is not sufficient information to prove
congruent. triangle congruence.
● SSA (side-side-angle): This is not sufficient information to prove
triangle congruence unless the triangles are right triangles.
36) Sine and Cosine of Complementary Angles
● If x° is the measure of one of the acute angles in a right triangle, the complementary angle
measure is (90-x)°.
● The sine of x is the cosine of 90-x. sin(x) = cos(90-x). This is because the opposite side /
hypotenuse for x is the adjacent side / hypotenuse for 90-x.
● The cosine of x is the sine of 90-x. cos(x) = sin(90-x). This is because the adjacent side /
hypotenuse for x is the opposite side / hypotenuse for 90-x.

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37) Angle Measures, Arc Lengths, and Sector Areas

Central Angle: The angle contained between two radii. Arc Measure: The angle measure contained within the arc.

Arc Length: The length of part of a circle's circumference. Inscribed Angle: An angle in the circle with its vertex on the circle.

Sector Area: The area of part of a circle (often contained between two radii). A central angle is equal to the arc measure of the arc it subtends (the arc it
creates). However, the arc subtended by an inscribed angle is twice the
The central angle, arc length, and sector area are proportional values. If you measure of the inscribed angle.
know one value, you can find the others using this proportion:

The basic idea behind this proportion is that each fraction contains a part of the
circle to the corresponding whole. The fraction of the central angle to the full
angle (360°) is the same as the fraction of the arc length to the circumference,
which is also the same as the fraction of the sector area to the area of the entire
circle.

For example, if the central angle is 120°, which is 1/3 of the full angle, then
the arc length will be 1/3 of the circumference.

USEFUL TIP: The key to solving a problem involving a circle, especially in

relation to an arc length or sector area, is often to find the radius. Make sure
you know the radius for a problem involving circles if you get stuck.

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38)Radians

Angles are often measured in units of degrees, but the radian is another unit to measure
angles. A radian is the central angle measure that would extend out to fit just between an arc
length of exactly one radius length.

Whereas degrees divide the circle into 360 equal parts, radians use the radius length placed on
the circle as a measuring tool for the central angle. The number of times the radius lengths fits
between the angle is the number of radian there are in the central angle.

There are 2π radians in a full circle because the radius can fit 2π times around a
circle. Remember: C = 2πr. Therefore, 360° = 2π radians.

Converting Between Radians and Degrees

If a radian problem appears on the SAT, it's highly likely that it will be an angle that is a multiple of 30° or 45°, so it will be good to know
what those degrees are in terms of radians.
Multiples of 30 Degrees Multiples of 45 Degrees

360° = 2π radians. 360° = 2π radians.

30° is 1/12 of 360°, therefore 30° is 1/12 of 2π radians = π/6 radians. 45° is 1/8 of 360°, therefore 45° is 1/8 of 2π radians = π/4 radians.

To find how many radians any multiple of 30° is, multiply π/6 by the To find how many radians any multiple of 45° is, multiply π/4 by the
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 number of times you would need to multiply 30° by to get that many number of times you would need to multiply 45° by to get that many
degrees. degrees.

For example, 240° is 30° times 8. For example, 225° is 45° times 5.
π/6 times 8 is 8π/6, which simplifies to 4π/3. π/4 times 5 is 5π/4.
In other words, 240° = 4π/3 radians. In other words, 225° = 5π/4 radians.

Radians and Degrees Conversion Proportion

Another way to convert between radians and degree is to use a proportion that relates the two units. By using the ratio of part to whole
for the circle, we can set up a proportion to directly convert between radians and degrees.

By dividing the denominators by 2, the proportion simplifies to the

following:

If you're given either the degrees or the radians of an angle, plug that
value in and solve for the angle measure of the other unit.

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39) Graphed Circles

The general equation that describes a circle is

where (h, k) is the circle's center and r is the length of the radius.

A circle with the equation

would have its center at (3, 2) and its radius would be 4.

USEFUL TIP: If a point on the circle and the center is known, the radius can be found using the distance formula since the radius is the distance between the point
on the circle and the center.

Completing the Square for Equations of Circles

Completing the square is a technique that can be used to rewrite quadratic equations but it can also be used to manipulate equations for circles to fit the form (x -
h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2 if it doesn't start with that form. The method is called "completing the square" because it takes two terms on one side of an equation (involving
a second degree and first degree variable) and rewrites them as a sum or difference being squared.

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Steps for Completing the Square (an example is shown below)

● Turn the coefficient of the variable being squared into 1 (if it isn't already) by dividing both sides of the equation by the value of the original coefficient.
● Move the constant to the other side of the equation from the variables.
● Take half the coefficient of the variable raised to the first power, square the number, and add it to both sides of the equation.
● Factor the side with the variables into a sum squared or a difference squared.

Here is a basic example of completing the square for a quadratic equation without involving the whole equation for a circle:

Subtract 5 from both sides.

Take half of the coefficient of x (half of -6 is -3), square it, and add it to both sides. -3 squared is 9, so add 9 to both sides.

This makes the left side into a form that can be factored as a difference squared. The right side can be simplified as well.

Those are the steps needed to compete the square, but for circles, you may need to perform that process for both the x and y variables.
An example for completing the square for fitting the general equation for circles is shown below.

Move the constant from the left side to the right side by subtracting 37 from both sides.

Take half the coefficient of x (half of -10 is -5), and add that number squared to both sides. Since -5 squared is 25, add 25 to both sides.

Rewrite x^2 - 10x + 25 as (x - 5)^2 and simplify the right side.

Take half the coefficient of y (half of 8 is 4), and add that number squared to both sides. Since 4 squared is 16, add 16 to both sides.

Rewrite y^2 + 8y +16 as (y + 4)^2 and simplify the right side.

Now that the equation has completed the square for both the x and y variables, it is in the general equation form for the circle. We can tell that the center is at (5, -4)
and the radius is 2.

USEFUL TIP: Don't mix up the signs for h and k when writing the center. In the example above (x - h) = (x - 5), so h = 5. Also, (y - k) = (y + 4), so k = -4. It's easy
to get the opposite signs by mistake.

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40) Unit Circle

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Finger rules

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