Chapter 7

Periodic Properties of
The Elements

7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge
7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions
7.4 Ionization Energy
7.5 Electron Affinity
7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
7.7 Trends for Group 1 and Group 2 Metals
7.8 Trends for Selected Nonmetals
Lecture Goal
• Periodic Patterns in Periodic Table
▪ Change with moving across a row or down a column

▪ Interactive forces between electrons-nucleus

• New terminologies
▪ Effective nuclear charge

▪ Ionization energy

▪ Electron affinity

2
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

• Classification of elements
▪ In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev in Russia and Lothar Meyer in
Germany published nearly identical classification schemes

▪ Similar chemical and physical properties are repeated periodically

when the elements are arranged in order increasing atomic weight

▪ Mendeleev insisted that

elements with similar properties
should be listed in the
same column (group)

Figure 7.1 Discovering the elements.

3
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

• Blanks in Mendeleev’s classification of the elements

▪ Mendeleev predicted the properties of gallium (Ga) and
germanium (Ge), unknown at that time, called them as
‘Eka-aluminum’ and ‘Eka-silicon’

4
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

• Henry Moseley (1887 – 1995), English physicist

▪ Bombarding different elements with high-energy electrons, each
element produces X-rays of a unique frequency, which generally
increases as the atomic mass increases

▪ He assigned a unique whole number

(called an atomic number) to each element
by the X-ray frequency, and arranged elements

▪ He correctly identified the atomic number

as the number of protons in the atom

Moseley's law in X-ray spectra

5
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

• Moseley’s contribution to the periodic table

▪ Although the atomic weight of Ar is greater than that of K, the
chemical and physical properties of Ar are much more like those of
Ne and Kr than those of Na and Rb.

▪ Arranging Ar and K according to their atomic number satisfies the

periodicity of elemental properties.

▪ His studies also made it possible to identify “holes” in the periodic

table, which led to the discovery of new elements.

6
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table

• Periodic trends
▪ In this chapter, we will rationalize observed trends in

➢ Sizes of atoms and ions

➢ Ionization energy

➢ Electron affinity

7
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Electron-electron repulsion
▪ Attraction between an electron and the nucleus depends on the
nuclear charge and the average distance between them

▪ In a many-electron atom, the electron experiences the repulsion

due to other electrons as well as the attraction to the nucleus

➢ The electron-electron repulsion cancels some of the attraction between

the electron and the nucleus, reducing the net attraction

8
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Effective nuclear charge

▪ Partially screened nuclear charge by the electron-electron repulsion

▪ The effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is always less than the actual
nuclear charge (Z)

𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑍 − 𝑆 𝑆 : screening constant (positive number)

▪ The screening constant (𝑆) is usually close to the number of core

electrons in the atom (Electrons in the same shell slightly affect 𝑆)

Figure 7.2 An analogy for effective nuclear charge.

The amount of light seen by the observer depends on
the intensity of the light bulb and the screening by the
9
frosted glass lampshade.
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• In a one-electron system (H, He+, Li2+)

▪ The stability of the orbital depends on 𝑍 (nuclear charge) and n

• In multi-electron system
▪ The orbital stability depends on primarily on 𝑍 and 𝑛, but it also
depends significantly on 𝑙

▪ Electrons with the same 𝒍 value but different values of 𝑚𝑙 do not

screen one another effectively

10
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Screening effect
▪ Outer electrons are only screened by inner electrons

➢ An electron in 3𝑠 orbital is screened by both 1𝑠 and 2𝑠

➢ An electron in 2𝑠 orbital is screened by only by 1𝑠

2s: less-compact and less effective

Screening effect decreases with n

• 1s screens both 2p and 3d

1s: Compact electrons • 2p screens 3d but not 1s
effectively counteract the
positive charge of the • 3d screens neither 1s nor 2p
nucleus 11
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Screening effect
▪ For a many-electron atom, energy of 2𝑠 < energy of 2𝑝

➢ 2𝑠 orbital has a small peak closely to the nucleus, whereas the 2𝑝

orbital does not.

➢ Attraction to nucleus
: 2𝑠 > 2𝑝

➢ Energy of orbital
: 2𝑠 < 2𝑝

➢ Trend in orbital energies

: 𝑛𝑠 < 𝑛𝑝 < 𝑛𝑑
Figure 7.4 Comparison 𝟏𝒔, 𝟐𝒔, and 𝟐𝒑 radial
12
probability functions.
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Screening effect
▪ Shape determines the screening effect

➢ 1𝑠 orbital screens the 2𝑝 orbital more effectively than 2𝑠 orbitals.

➢ The higher the value of momentum quantum number (𝑙 = 𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑑, …),

the more that orbital is screened by electrons in smaller and more
stable orbitals

Effective screening
• 2𝑠 and 2𝑝 orbitals are about
the same size, but 2𝑠 is more
stable due to its shape Less effective

13
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Effective nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons

is a periodic property:
▪ It increases from left to right across any period of the periodic table

▪ It increases when going down a column, the change is much

smaller than the change across a period

➢ According to Equation 7.1, the effective nuclear charges for Li, Na, and
K are 1+

➢ Because the more diffuse core electron cloud is less able to screen the
valence electrons from the nuclear, the effective nuclear charges for Li,
Na, and K are 1.3+, 2.5+, and 3.5+.

14
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) for sodium atom (Na)

11
▪ 𝑁𝑎 = 𝑁𝑒 3𝑠1 = 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝6 3𝑠1

▪ 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 11 + − 10 − 1.5 = 2.5 +

Nuclear charge Core electrons Small probability that the 3𝑠 electron is close to
the nucleus

Figure 7.3 Effective nuclear charge.

The effective nuclear charge experienced by the 3𝑠 electron in a
sodium atom depends on the 11+ charge of the nucleus the 10-
15
charge of the core electrons.
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Zeff for valence electrons of elements

▪ It is smaller than that for the core electrons due to screening effect
and does not increase as steeply with increasing atomic number

➢ It means that the valence electrons make a nonnegligible contribution

to the screening constant, 𝑆.

▪ When moving from Ne to Na, Zeff for valence electrons decreases

rapidly

➢ It means that core electrons are much more effective than the valence
electrons at screening the nuclear charge.

16
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• How to estimate the value of 𝑆

▪ In the text, the S is assumed to be the number of core electrons.

▪ John Slater (1900 – 1976)

➢ Electrons with 𝑛 greater than the electron of interest are assigned 0

➢ Electrons with the same 𝑛 as the electron of interest are assigned 0.35

➢ Electrons with 𝑛 − 1 are assigned 0.85, while those with even smaller
values of 𝑛 are assigned 1.00

Ex) Effective nuclear charge of a valence electron for F (1𝑠22𝑠22𝑝5)

S = (0.35 × 6) + (0.85 × 2) = 3.8

Zeff = 9 – 3.8 = 5.2+

17
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge

• Zeff for the 1s electrons (●)

closely tracks the increase in
nuclear charge, Z (black line)
• Zeff for the valence electrons
calculated with equation 7.1 (●)
and with Slater’s rule (●)
effectively capture the periodic
variation in Zeff.

Figure 7.5 Variation in effective

nuclear charge for period 2 and
period 3 elements.
18
7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

• Atomic size
▪ When two atoms of the one element collide
and repel, the shortest distance is twice
the atomic radius (nonbonding atomic radius
or van der Waals radius)
Figure 7.6 Distinction
▪ When two atoms are bonded, the atoms are between nonbonding
closer together than they would be in and bonding atomic
radii within a molecule.
a nonbonding collision

▪ The bonding atomic radius (or covalent radius) is equal to half

of the bond distance, 𝑑, generally, “atomic size” means this radius

Bonding atomic radius < Nonbonding atomic radius 19

7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

• Bonding atomic radius

▪ Measured the distance separating nuclei in molecules

➢ In the I2 molecule, the distance between two nuclei is 266 pm

→ The bonding atomic radius of an iodine atom is 133 pm

➢ The distance separating adjacent C nuclei in a diamond is 154 pm

→ The bonding atomic radius of a carbon atom is 77 pm

▪ For He and Ne, the bonding atomic radii are estimated because
there are no known compounds of these elements

20
7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

• Bond length in molecule

▪ The bond lengths are estimated through the atomic radii

➢ The Cl-Cl bond length in Cl2 = 1.99 × 102 pm

➢ The C-C bond length in diamond = 1.54 × 102 pm

1
➢ The C-Cl bond length in CCl4 ≅ × 199 + 154 pm
2

21
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

• Within each group

▪ Bonding atomic radii tends to increase from top to bottom, due to
the increase in the principal quantum number (𝑛) of the outer
electrons

• Within each period

▪ Bonding atomic radii tends to decrease from left to right, due to the
increase in effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

22
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii

Figure 7.7 Trends in bonding atomic radii for periods 1 through 5.

23
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii

• Ionic radii
▪ Just as bonding atomic radii can be determined from interatomic
distance in molecules, the ionic radii can be determined from
interatomic distance in ionic compounds.

▪ The size of an ion depends on its 1) nuclear charge, 2) the number

of electrons, and 3) the orbitals in which the valence electrons
reside

24
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii

• When a cation is formed from a neutral atom,

▪ Electrons are removed from the atomic orbitals and the electron-
electron repulsion is reduced

▪ Cations are smaller than their parent atoms

• When an anion is formed from a neutral atom,

▪ Electrons are added to an atom and the increased electron-
electron repulsion cause the electrons spread out more in space

▪ Anions are larger than their parent atoms

25
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii

For ions carrying the same

charge, ionic radius increases
as we move down a column in
the periodic table

Figure 7.8 Cation and anion size.

Radii, in picometers, of atoms and their
ions for five groups of representative
elements.
26
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii

• Isoelectronic (등전자 이온) series

▪ A group of ions all containing the same number of electrons

▪ For example, O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+ have 10 electrons

➢ Because of the number of electrons remains constant, ionic radius is

dependent on the nuclear charge

➢ The ionic radius decreases with increasing nuclear charge

27
7.4 Ionization Energy

• Ionization energy
▪ The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
ground state of isolated gaseous atom or ion

▪ Electron is completely removed from the atom (to 𝑛 = ∞); the atom
is ionized

28
7.4 Ionization Energy

• First ionization energy (𝐼1 )

▪ The energy needed to remove the first electron from a neutral
atom

𝑁𝑎 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎+ 𝑔 + 𝑒 −

• Second ionization energy (𝐼2 )

▪ The energy needed to remove the second electron for successive
removals of additional electrons

𝑁𝑎+ 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2+ 𝑔 + 𝑒 −

29
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

• Effective nuclear charge (with the same nuclear charge)

▪ 1s orbital becomes less stable in a multi-electron atom
(because the electron-electron repulsion)

▪ Two electrons in [He] atom are repelled each other

[He] - Repulsion
[He+] -
Attraction

Multi e- system
Attraction - Single e- system
2+ 2+

1s, I1 = 3.9410-18 J 1s, I2 = 8.7210-18 J

30
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

• Successive ionization energies

▪ The greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove
an electron

▪ With each successive removal, an electron is being pulled away

from an increasingly positive ion, requiring increasingly more energy
(𝐼1 < 𝐼2 < 𝐼3 )

31
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

• Successive ionization energies

▪ Sharp increase in ionization energy that occurs when an inner-shell
electron is removed

▪ Ionization energies for Si (1𝑠22𝑠22𝑝63𝑠23𝑝2)

➢ Ionization energies (from 𝐼1 to 𝐼4) increase steadily from 786 to 4356

kJ/mol for the 4 electrons in the 3𝑠 and 3𝑝 orbitals

➢ The 5th ionization energy (𝐼5) for the electron in 2𝑝 orbital requires a
great deal more energy (16,091 kJ/mol)

✓ 2𝑝 electron experiences a much greater effective nuclear charge than

do the 3𝑠 and 3𝑝 electrons

32
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

• Successive ionization energies

▪ Ionizations become more difficult as cation charge increases

➢ Mg < Mg+ < Mg2+

Electron Ionization
Process
configuration Energy (kJ/mol)
Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- [𝑁𝑒] 3𝑠2 → [𝑁𝑒] 3𝑠1 738
valence electron
Mg+(g) → Mg2+(g) + e- [𝑁𝑒] 3𝑠1 → [𝑁𝑒] 1,450
core electron
Mg2+(g) → Mg3+(g) + e- [𝑁𝑒] → 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠22𝑝5 7,730

➢ Increased the ionization energies as removing more electrons

➢ Zeff increases as the number of electron decreases

33
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies

• Only the outermost electrons are involved in the sharing

and transfer of electrons that give rise to chemical bonding
and reaction

• The inner electrons are too tightly bound to the nucleus to

be lost from the atom or even shared with another atom.

34
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies

• Trends in first ionization energies (𝐼1) in the periodic table

1. 𝐼1 generally increases from left to right across a period

2. 𝐼1 generally decreases as we move down any column in the

periodic table

3. Generally, the ionization energies of the transition metals and

𝑓-block metals increase slowly from left to right in a period

35
 Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies

• Trends in first ionization energies (𝐼1) in the periodic table

Attraction between the electron and
the nucleus increases with either
increasing the effective nuclear As we move from left to right across a
charge or decreasing the distance period, there is both an increase in
from the nucleus. effective nuclear charge and a
decrease in atomic radius, causing the
ionization energy to increase.

As we move down a column, although

the effective nuclear charge increases
slightly, the ionization energy
decreases because the increase in
atomic radius is very dominant.

Figure 7.10 The first ionization energies of the elements in

36
kJ/mol.
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies

• The discontinuity between Groups 2A and 3A

▪ The electron is easily removed from a 𝑝 orbital rather than
an 𝑠 orbital

➢ Consider Be ([He] 2𝑠2) and B ([He] 2𝑠22𝑝1)

➢ The electron removed is farther from the nucleus

➢ There is also a small amount of repulsion by the 𝑠 electrons

4 4
𝐵𝑒 = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠 2 𝐵𝑒 + = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠1

5 5 +
𝐵 = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠 2 2𝑝1 𝐵 = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠 2 2𝑝0

37
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies

• The discontinuity between Groups 5A and 6A

▪ The electron is easily removed from a doubly occupied orbital

➢ Repulsion of paired electrons in the 𝑝4 configuration

➢ Consider N ([He] 2𝑠 2 2𝑝3 ) and O ([He] 2𝑠 2 2𝑝4 )

7
𝑁 = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠 2 2𝑝3

8
𝑂 = 𝐻𝑒 2𝑠 2 2𝑝4

Figure 7.11 𝟐𝒑 orbital

filling in nitrogen and
oxygen. 38
Electron Configuration of Ions

• Electron are removed first from the occupied orbitals having

the largest principal quantum number, 𝑛
▪ Li 1𝑠 2 𝟐𝒔𝟏 → Li+ 1𝑠 2 + 𝑒 −

▪ Fe 𝐴𝑟 𝟒𝒔𝟐 3𝑑 6 → Fe2+ 𝐴𝑟 3𝑑 6 + 2𝑒 −

▪ Fe2+ 𝐴𝑟 𝟑𝒅𝟔 → Fe3+ 𝐴𝑟 𝟑𝒅𝟓 + 𝑒 −

• In transition metal, electrons in 4𝑠 are removed before 3𝑑

▪ Difference in the number of protons change the energy level of
orbitals

▪ 20Ca 𝐴𝑟 𝟒𝒔𝟐 vs. 22Ti2+ 𝐴𝑟 𝟑𝒅𝟐

39
Electron Configuration of Ions

• If there is more than one occupied subshell for a given

value of 𝑛, the electrons with the highest value of 𝑙 are first
removed : 𝑝 orbital rather than 𝑠 orbital
▪ Sn 𝐾𝑟 𝟓𝒔𝟐 4𝑑10 𝟓𝒑𝟐 ⇒ Sn2+ 𝐾𝑟 𝟓𝒔𝟐 4𝑑10 + 2𝑒 −

▪ Sn 𝐾𝑟 𝟓𝒔𝟐 4𝑑10 𝟓𝒑𝟐 ⇒ Sn4+ 𝐾𝑟 4𝑑10 + 4𝑒 −

40
Electron Configuration of Ions

• Adding electron to form an anion

▪ The electrons are added to the empty or partially filled orbital with
the lowest value of 𝑛.

▪ For a fluorine atom, an electron goes into the one remaining

vacancy in the 2𝑝 subshell

▪ F 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 𝟐𝒑𝟓 + 𝑒 − → F- 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 𝟐𝒑𝟔

41
7.5 Electron Affinity

• Electron affinity (EA, 전자친화도)

▪ The energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a
gaseous atom

▪ For most atoms, energy is released when an electron is added, so

the electron affinities of the most atoms are negative

[He]2s22p5 F + e- → F- [He]2s22p6 EA = -328 kJ/mol

e-
F+ [He]2s22p4 I1 = 1681 kJ/mol
42
7.5 Electron Affinity

• Electron affinity vs. Ionization energy

▪ Electron affinity measures the energy change when an atom gains
an electron

▪ Ionization energy measures the energy change when an atom

loses an electron

▪ Both are the measure of the stability of a bound electron

F → F+ + e- I1 = 1681 kJ/mol F- is more stable

than F and F+
F + e- → F- EA = -328 kJ/mol
F has a great affinity
High E Low E → stable for electron
Energy release 43
7.5 Electron Affinity

• The greater the attraction between an atom and an added

electron, the more negative the atom’s electron affinity
▪ Some elements (e.g., noble gases) have a positive electron affinity

▪ It means that an electron will not attach itself to a noble gas atom
(e.g., Ar), in other words, the negative ions for the noble gas
(e.g., Ar-) are unstable and do not form

44
Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity

• It becomes more exothermic as you go from left to right

across a period more negative electron affinity

• It does not change much we move down a column

Figure 7.12 Electron affinity in kJ/mol for

selected 𝒔- and 𝒑-block elements. 45
Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity

• Halogen atom
▪ By gaining an electron, the atom forms a stable anion that has a
noble-gas configuration

▪ The atoms have the most negative electron affinities

• Noble gas
▪ The addition of an electron to a noble gas requires that the electron
resides in a higher-energy subshell

▪ The electron affinities are highly positive

46
Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity
4Be = [He] 2s2 2p0 4Be- = [He] 2s2 2p1
• Be and Mg 12Mg
= [Ne] 3s2 3p0 12Mg- =[Ne] 3s2 3p1

▪ The added electron would reside in an empty 𝑝 subshell that is

higher in energy

▪ The electron affinities for the both atoms are highly positive
7N = [He] 2s2 2p3 7N - = [He] 2s2 2p4
• Group 15
▪ The group 15 elements have half-filled 𝑝 orbitals, the added
electron must be put in an orbital that is already occupied

▪ The larger electron-electron repulsion in a 𝑝 orbital cause the

electron affinities that are either positive (N) or less negative than
those of their neighbors to the left.
47
7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Figure 7.13 Metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

48
7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
• Elements can be broadly grouped as metals, nonmetals,
and metalloids.

• Metallic character generally increases as we proceed down

a group of the periodic table and decreases as we proceed
right across a period

49
Metals
Figure 7.14 Metals are shiny,
• Metallic character malleable, and ductile.

▪ Metals tend to be lustrous (광택), malleable (전성), ductile (연성),

and good conductors of heat and electricity

▪ At room temperature, most solids are solid except for mercury

▪ Metals tend to have low ionization energies and therefore tend to

form cations easily

➢ First ionization energy is the best indicator of whether an element

behaves as a metal or a nonmetal

50
Metals

• Oxidation states of ions of metals

▪ The charge on any alkali metal ion and alkaline earth metal ion is
+1 and +2, respectively.

▪ Transition metals in group 13 – 17, with partially occupied 𝑝 orbitals,

form cations by losing only the outer 𝑝 electrons (e.g., Sn2+) or the
outer 𝑠 and 𝑝 electrons (e.g., Sn4+)

▪ One characteristic of the transition metal is their ability to form more

than one cation.

51
Metals

• Oxidation states of ions of metals

Figure 7.15 Representative oxidation states of the elements. Note that hydrogen
exhibits both positive and negative oxidation numbers, +1 and -1.

52
Metals

• Compounds made up of a metal

▪ Most compounds tend to be ionic substances (oxides, halides)

▪ Most metal oxides are basic (O2- reacts with water to produce OH-)

➢ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞

➢ 𝐶𝑎𝑂 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 2 (𝑎𝑞)

➢ 𝑁𝑖𝑂 𝑠 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ 𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑂3 2 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Figure 7.16 Metal oxides react with acids.

NiO does not dissolve in water but does
react with nitric acid (HNO3) to give a green
53
solution of Ni(NO3)2.
 Figure 7.17 Sulfur,
known to the
Nonmetals medieval world as
“brimstone”, is a
nonmetal.
• Nonmetal character
▪ Nonmetals are not lustrous and poor conductors of heat and
electricity

▪ Generally, the melting points of the nonmetals are lower than metals

▪ Under ordinary conditions, 7 nonmetals exist as diatomic molecules

(H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2)
Gas liquid volatile solid

▪ Excluding the noble gases, the remaining nonmetals are solids that
can be either hard (diamond) or soft (sulfur)

54
Nonmetals

• Compounds made up of a nonmetal

▪ Because of large electron affinities, nonmetals tend to gain
electrons when they react with metals
2 𝐴𝑙 𝑠 + 3 𝐵𝑟2 𝑙 ⟶ 2 𝐴𝑙𝐵𝑟3 (𝑠)

➢ A nonmetal will gain enough electrons to fill its outermost occupied p

subshell, giving a noble-gas electron configuration

Br([Ar] 4𝑠 2 3𝑑10 𝟒𝒑𝟓 ) + e- → Br-([Ar] 4𝑠 2 3𝑑10 𝟒𝒑𝟔 )

55
Nonmetals

• Compounds made up of a nonmetal

▪ Compounds composed entirely of nonmetals

➢ Molecular substances that tend to be gases, liquids, or low melting

point solids at room temperature (e.g., CH4, C3H8, C8H18, HCl, NH3,…)

➢ The acidic nonmetal oxides dissolve in water form acids, and react with
base to form salt and water

Neutral 𝐶𝑂2 𝑔 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 𝑎𝑞

Basic 𝑃4 𝑂10 𝑠 + 6 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 4 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝑎𝑞

𝐶𝑂2 𝑔 + 2 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Figure 7.18 The reaction of CO2 with water

containing a bromthymol blue indicator.
56
Metalloids

• Metalloids have properties intermediate between metals

and nonmetals
▪ Silicon (Si) looks like a metal, but it is brittle and does not conduct
heat or electricity nearly as well as metals do

▪ Several metalloids, including Si, are electrical semiconductors and

the principal elements used in integrated circuits and computer
chips

➢ Pure Si is an electrical insulator,

but its conductivity can be increased with
the addition of specific impurities
called dopants
Figure 7.19 Elemental silicon.
57
7.7 Trends for Group 1 and Group 2 Metals

• Elements in a group have general similarities

• Group 1 metals : alkali metals (알칼리 금속)

• Group 2 metals : alkaline earth metals (알칼리 토금속)

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Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali (from Arabic word, “ashes”) metals

▪ Soft metallic solids with silvery luster and high thermal and electrical
conductivity

▪ They have low densities and melting points, these properties vary in
a regular way with increasing atomic number and decreasing first
ionization energy

Figure 7.20 Sodium, like the other alkali metals, is soft enough to be cut with a knife.
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Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals react with nonmetals

▪ Alkali metals have the lowest 𝐼1 value in the period, which means
the outer 𝑠 electron of the metals can be easily removed (1+ charge)

▪ The alkali metals combine directly with most nonmetals, such as

hydrogen and sulfur, to form hydrides and sulfides, respectively.

2 𝑀 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑔 ⟶ 2 𝑀𝐻 𝑠

2 𝑀 𝑠 + 𝑆 𝑠 ⟶ 𝑀2 𝑆(𝑠)

➢ In hydrides of the alkali metals, hydrogen is present as H-,

the hydride ion.

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 Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals react with water

▪ The alkali metal react vigorously with water, producing hydrogen
gas and a solution of an alkali metal hydroxide

2 𝑀 𝑠 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 2 𝑀𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 (𝑎𝑞) (exothermic)

➢ Enough heat is generated to ignite the H2, producing a fire or

sometimes even an explosion

➢ The reactions is even more violent for Rb

and Cs, because the ionization energies
are even lower than that of K

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Figure 7.21 The alkali metals react vigorously with water.
Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals react with oxygen

▪ Li metal reacts with oxygen to form lithium oxide (Li2O)
4 𝐿𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑂2 𝑔 ⟶ 2 𝐿𝑖2 𝑂 𝑠

➢ When dissolved in water, Li2O and other soluble metal oxides form
hydroxide ions from the reaction of O2- ions with H2O

▪ Na metal reacts with oxygen to form sodium peroxide (Na2O2)

2 𝑁𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑂2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂2 (𝑠)

▪ K, Rb, and Cs react with oxygen to form compounds that contain

the O2- ion, superoxide ion (e.g., potassium superoxide (KO2))

𝐾 𝑠 + 𝑂2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝐾𝑂2 (𝑠)
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Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals in flame

▪ Each alkali metal emits a characteristic color when placed in a
flame

➢ The atom in a flame is reduced to a gaseous metal atom

➢ The high temperature excites the valence electron from the ground
state to a higher-energy orbital (excited state)

➢ The atom then emits energy in the form of visible light as the
electron falls back into the lower-energy orbital (ground state)

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 Group 1: The Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals in flame

Figure 7.22 Placed in a flame, ions of Figure 7.23 The characteristic yellow light
each alkali metal emit light of a in a sodium lamp results from excited
characteristic wavelength. electrons in the high-energy 𝟑𝒑 orbital
falling back to the lower-energy 𝟑𝒔 orbital.

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Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals

• Alkaline earth metals

▪ Solids at room temperature and have typical metallic properties

▪ Compared with the alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals are
harder and denser, and melt at higher temperatures

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Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals

• Ionization energies of the alkaline earth metals

▪ The first ionization energies of the alkaline earth metals are low
(but not as low as those of the alkali metals)

▪ The alkaline earth metals are less reactive than their alkali metal
neighbors

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Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals

• Reactivity of the alkaline earth metals

▪ As we move down a group in the periodic table, the ease with which
the elements lose electrons increases

➢ Be does not react with either water or steam

➢ Mg reacts slowly with liquid water and more readily with steam

𝑀𝑔 𝑠 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝑂 𝑠 + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

➢ Ca and the elements below it react readily with water at room

temperature

𝐶𝑎 𝑠 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 2 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

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Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals

• Reactivity of the alkaline earth metals

𝐶𝑎 𝑠 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 2 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

Figure 7.25 Elemental calcium reacts with water.

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Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals

• Reactivity of the alkaline earth metals

▪ The metals tend to lose their two outer 𝑠 electrons and form 2+ ions
𝑀𝑔 𝑠 + 𝐶𝑙2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 𝑠

2 𝑀𝑔 𝑠 + 𝑂2 𝑔 ⟶ 2 𝑀𝑔𝑂 𝑠

➢ In the presence oxygen, Mg metal is protected by a thin coating of

water-insoluble MgO

➢ The heavier alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba) are even more
reactive with nonmetals than Mg

➢ The heavier alkaline ions give off characteristic colors when heated in
a hot flame (Sr : brilliant red color, Ba : green color)

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7.8 Trends for Selected Nonmetals
• Hydrogen

• Group 16 : The oxygen group

• Group 17 : The halogens (할로겐족)

• Group 18 : The noble gases (비활성기체)

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Hydrogen

• Hydrogen
▪ Electron configuration (1𝑠1 ) is similar to alkali metals

▪ Ionization energy (1312 kJ/mol) is much higher than any metal and
comparable to that of oxygen

➢ Complete absence of screening effect

▪ Hydrogen is a nonmetal that occurs as a colorless diatomic gas,

H2(g), under most conditions

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Hydrogen

• Reactivity with nonmetals

▪ Hydrogen shares its electron with most nonmetals to form molecular
compounds
1
𝑁𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐶𝑙2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠) ∆𝐻𝑜 = −410.9 kJ
2

1 1
𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝐶𝑙2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) ∆𝐻𝑜 = −92.3 kJ
2 2

▪ Molecular compounds containing hydrogen dissolve in water and

readily produce H+ (H3O+) ions

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Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Oxygen group
▪ As we go down group 16, there is a change from
nonmetallic to metallic character

▪ Oxygen is colorless gas at room temperature,

and the others are solids

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Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Oxygen (dioxygen, O2) vs. ozone (O3)

▪ Oxygen exists in two molecular forms, O2 and O3

▪ Allotropes (동소체): different forms of the same element

▪ O3 is formed from O2 in electrical discharges (e.g., lightning storm),

and O3 is less stable than O2

3 𝑂2 𝑔 ⟶ 2 𝑂3 (𝑔) ∆𝐻𝑜 = 284.6 kJ (endothermic)

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Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Ozone (O3)
▪ O2 and O3 are both colorless, but O3 can absorbs certain
wavelengths of UV that O2 does not

▪ The presence of O3 in the upper atmosphere is beneficial, filtering

out harmful UV light

▪ O3, which has a pungent odor, is a powerful oxidizing agent, so it is

sometimes added to water to kill bacteria or used in low levels to
help to purify air

▪ The high reactivity of O3 in polluted air near Earth’s surface can

harm to human
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Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Oxygen ion
▪ Oxygen has a great tendency to attract electrons from other
elements (to oxidize them)

▪ Oxygen in combination with a metal is almost always

present as the oxide ion (O2-), which is particularly stable

▪ Compounds of the two less common oxygen anions,

the peroxide ion (O22-) and superoxide ion (O2-),
often react to produce an oxide and O2

2 𝐻2 𝑂2 𝑎𝑞 ⟶ 2 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 + 𝑂2 (𝑔) ∆𝐻𝑜 = −196.1 kJ

Figure 7.26 Hydrogen
peroxide solution in a
bottle with venting
76 cap.
Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Sulfur (S) Figure 7.27 Elemental sulfur

exists as the S8 molecule.
▪ S exists in several allotropic forms,
the most common and stable form is the yellow solid (S8)

▪ S tends to gain electrons from other elements to form sulfides,

which contain sulfide ion (S2-)

▪ The tendency of S to form S2- is not as great as than that of O to

form O2-

▪ The main combustion product of S in oxygen is sulfur dioxide (SO2),

a major air pollutant

𝑆 𝑠 + 𝑂2 (𝑔) ⟶ 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)

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Group 16: The Oxygen Group

• Other elements in group 16

▪ Selenium (Se) is essential for life in trace quantities, although it is
toxic at high doses

▪ There are many allotropes of Se, including several eight-membered

ring structures (Se8)

▪ Tellurium (Te) has even more complex elemental structure than that
of Se

▪ Both Se and Te favor the -2 oxidation state

▪ The thermal stability of group 16 compounds with hydrogen

H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te

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Most stable
Group 17: The Halogens

• The halogens (할로겐족) Figure 7.28 The

elemental halogens exist
▪ All the halogens are nonmetals as diatomic molecules.

▪ Their melting and boiling points increase with atomic number

▪ Each element consists of diatomic molecules; F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2

▪ F2 and Cl2 are gases, Br2 is a liquid, and I2 is a solid at room

temperature

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Group 17: The Halogens

• Ion of the halogens

▪ Highly negative electron affinities, so the halogens gain electrons
from other elements to form halide ions, X-

▪ F and Cl are more reactive than Br and I

➢ F can remove electrons from almost any substance (including water

and glass) with which it comes into contact

2 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 + 2 𝐹2 𝑔 ⟶ 4 𝐻𝐹 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑂2 (𝑔) ∆𝐻 = −758.9 kJ

𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑠 + 2 𝐹2 𝑔 ⟶ 𝑆𝑖𝐹4 𝑔 + 𝑂2 (𝑔) ∆𝐻 = −704.0 kJ

➢ Cl reacts slowly with water to form HCl and HOCl (hypochlorous acid)

𝐶𝑙2 𝑔 + 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 ⟶ 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)

disinfectant 80
Group 17: The Halogens

• Reactivity of the halogens

▪ The halogens react directly with most metals to form ionic halides

▪ The halogens react with hydrogen to form gaseous hydrogen halide

compounds

➢ All the compounds are very soluble in water and dissolve to form the
hydrohalic acids (e.g., HCl)

𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝑋2 ⟶ 2 𝐻𝑋 𝑔

➢ HCl(aq), HBr(aq), and HI(aq) are strong acids, whereas HF(aq) is a

weak acid

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Group 18: The Noble Gases

• The noble gases

▪ The elements are all monatomic nonmetals that are gases at room
temperature

▪ The noble gases have completely filled s and p subshells and have
large first ionization energies (I1)

▪ Although they are thought to be non-reactive with stable electron

configurations, it turns out that they can actually react with highly
reactive substance (such as F)

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 Homework : Chap 7

• Exercise [Page 334 ~ ]

▪ 7, 9, 13, 28, 44, 50, 59, 69, 78, 97

▪ Due : ~ 5/8 (Mon) 09:00

▪ Blackboard system – 과제 및 시험

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