MODULE 2

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Magnetic lines of Force
The imaginary magnetic lines which travel from north pole to south
pole outside the magnet, and south pole to north pole, inside the
magnet are called magnetic lines of force.

Magnetic Field
The region around which the magnetic lines of force acts is called
magnetic field.
 Properties of Magnetic lines of Force
 Magnetic lines of force are directed fromnorth to south
pole outside a magnet.
 Magnetic lines of force are continuous

 Magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other.

 Magnetic lines of force occupy three-dimensional space extending

(theoretically) to infinity.
 Basics of Magnetic Circuits
1. Magnetic flux(ϕ)
 The total number of lines of force in the magnetic field is called
magnetic flux
 It is denoted by ϕ and its unit is weber(Wb).

2. Magnetic Flux density(B)

The magnetic flux passing through unit cross section is called magnetic flux density.
Its SI unit is Tesla (weber per metre square).
B= ϕ/A Wb/m2 or Tesla
Where ϕ -total flux in webers A - area of the core in square metres
B - flux density in weber/metre square.
10
3 . Magnetomotive Force(MMF)
 The amount of flux density setup in the core is dependent upon five factors
-the current, number of turns, material of the magnetic core, length of core
and the cross-sectional area of the core.
 More current and the more turns of wire we use, the greater will be the
magnetizing effect.
 This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux or magnetization is called the
magneto motive force.
mmf = NI ampere - turns
where mmf is the magnetomotive force in ampere turns
N is the number of turns.

11
4. Magnetic field Intensity or Magnetic field strength(H)
 The magnetic field intensity is the mmf per unit length along the path of the
flux.
 Is is represented by the letter H. Its unit is ampere turns per meter.
H= mmf/ Length
H = NI/l AT/m
Where H is magnetic field intensity
N is the number of turns
l is average path length of the magnetic flux
It is given by the force experienced by unit north pole placed at that
point. If ‘Φ’ is the flux in Wb, ‘F’ is the force in Newton (N), H is the
field strength in N/Wb.
then H = F/ Φ(N/Wb)

H is also given by H =B/µoµr 12

5. Magnetic Flux Linkage( )
 The product of magnetic coupling to a conductor, or the flux thru a single
turn times the number of turns in coils.
=N
 Which also relates to define inductance as
=

13
6. Reluctance [S]
It is the propertyof magnetic material by which it opposes the
establishment of magnetic flux. It is defined as the ratio of magneto-motive force
to the flux. It is denoted by S and its unit is ampere turns/Wb.
Reluctance, S =mmf/flux=NI/ Φ (AT/Wb)

∅ 𝐵𝐴 𝜇𝑜𝜇𝑟A 𝜇𝑜𝜇𝑟𝐴
F
𝐹 𝐻𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑙
𝑙 𝜇𝑜 𝜇 𝐴
𝑆 ∅
𝜇𝑜𝜇𝑟𝐴

Where S – reluctance of the magnetic circuit

l - length of the magnetic path in meters
μo- permeability of free space, µr - relative permeability
14
7. Permeance
It is the reciprocal of reluctance and is a measure of the ease with
which flux can pass through the material. Its unit is Wb/AT.
Permeance = 1/S (Wb/AT)
8. Permeability
 A property of a magnetic material which indicates the ability of
magnetic circuit to carry electromagnetic flux.
 Ratio of flux density to the magnetizing force, Absolute permeability
μ = B /H
 Unit- H/m
 Permeability of free space or air or non magnetic material
𝑜 = 4 × 10
−7 /

Relative permeability [ 𝑟]
𝑟
𝑜
 Magnetic Circuit
A magnetic circuit is defined as the closed path traced by the magnetic lines of
force or magnetic flux.

10
Electric circuit magnetic circuit

11
 Comparison of Electric and Magnetic circuits
(i) Similarities

[Link] Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit

1 The path traced by magnetic flux is Path traced by the current is called as
defined as magnetic circuit. electric circuit.

2 MMF is the driving force in the Emf is the driving force in an electric
magnetic circuit (Unit is Ampere turns) circuit. (Unit is volts)
3 There will be the presence of flux, There will be the presence of current,
(Wb) I (A)
4 The magnetic lines will decide the flux The electrons will decide the current.
 Comparison of Electric and Magnetic circuits
(i) Dissimilarities
 The equivalent reluctance of a
number of reluctances in series is just
the sum of the individual reluctances:

 Similarly, reluctances in parallel

combine according to the equation

14
Leakage Flux and Fringing
 Leakage Flux : the magnetic flux
which does not follow the
particularly intended path in a
magnetic circuit.
 When a current is passed through a
solenoid, magnetic flux is produced by
it.

15
 Most of the flux is set up in the core of the solenoid and passes through the
particular path that is through the air gap and is utilised in the magnetic
circuit. This flux is known as Useful flux 𝒖
 Practically it is not possible that all the flux in the circuit follows a particularly
intended path and sets up in the magnetic core and thus some of the flux also
sets up around the coil or surrounds the core of the coil, and is not utilised for
any work in the magnetic circuit. This type of flux which is not used for any
work is called Leakage Flux and is denoted by 𝒍.
 The total flux Φ produced by the solenoid in the magnetic circuit
is the sum of the leakage flux and the useful flux.

26
 Leakage coefficient Fringing
 The ratio of the total flux  The useful flux when sets up in the air
produced to the useful flux set up gap, it tends to bulge outward at (b
in the air gap of the magnetic and b’) as shown in figure,
circuit is called leakage coefficient because of this bulging the
or leakage factor. It is denoted by effective area of the air gap
(λ). increases and the flux density of the air
gap decreases. This effect is known as
λ= ( ℎ ℎ) Fringing and the longer the air gap the
greater is the fringing.

17
Series magnetic circuits

 Magnetic circuit composed of various

materials of different permeabilities.
 When composite magnetic circuit parts
are connected one after the other the
circuit is called series magnetic circuit.
 Consider a circular ring made up of
different materials of lengths 1, 2
3and with cross sectional areas 1, 2
3 with absolute permeabilities 1,
2 and 3.
18
Equivalent electric circuit

19
 Series magnetic circuit with air gap
 Consider a ring having mean where 𝑖=reluctance of ironpath
length of iron part as 𝑖
𝑔=reluctance of air gap

𝑙𝑖 𝑙𝑔
𝑖 𝑔
𝜇𝑎 𝑖 𝜇𝑜𝑎𝑔

𝑖 𝑔
𝑇
𝑜

Total . . = AT
Total reluctance 𝑇= 𝑖+ 𝑔
𝑇 30
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
 Parallel magnetic circuit
 A magnetic circuit which has more  At point A the total flux divides
than one path for the flux is known as into two parts 1 2.
a parallel magnetic circuit. = 1+ 2
 The fluxes 1 2 have their
paths completed through ABCD and
AFED respectively

31
Magnetic core Equivalent electrical circuit
 Total . . =
l1 l2 lc
1 2 and c
. . μa 1 μa 2 μa c
= For parallel circuit

Total m.m.f = m.m.f required by central limb

. . = × + m.m.f required by any one of outer limbs.
 For path ABCDA
= 1 1+ 𝐶
𝑁𝐼 = (𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐷+(𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 (𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐹𝐸𝐷
 For path AFEDA
= 2 2+ 𝐶 𝑁𝐼 = ∅𝑆𝑐 + [∅1𝑆1 𝑜𝑟 ∅2𝑆2]
32
 Parallel magnetic circuits with air gap
 Consider a parallel circuit with air
gap in the central limb  The analysis of this circuit is exactly
similar to the parallel circuit.
 The only change is the analysis of central
limb. The central limb is series
combination of iron path and air gap.
 The central limb is made up of Path

GD=iron path=
Path GA=air gap=
33
 = 1+ 2
 The reluctance of central limb is
𝑐 𝑔
𝑐 𝑖 𝑔
𝑐 𝑜 𝑐
 m.m.f of central limb is
( . . )𝐴𝐷= ( . . )𝐺𝐷+( . . )𝐺𝐴
 The total m.m.f can be expressed as
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝐷 𝐺𝐴 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝐹𝐸𝐷

34
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
We have seen the magnetic effects of an electric current. Then it
was Michael Faraday who made attempts, to get emf from magnetic flux.
This is called to be electromagnetic induction.
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
(i) Faraday’s law
Whenever the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an emf is
always induced in it. The magnitude of induced emf is proportional to the
rate of change of flux linkages.
Where e=N dΦ/dt
e= induced emf in V
N= Number of turns

dΦ/dt = Rate of change of flux.

 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(ii) Lenz’s Law
This law states that any induced emf will circulate a current in such a

direction so as to oppose the cause producing it.

e= - N dΦ/dt

Where e= induced emf in V

N= Number of turns
dΦ/dt = Rate of change of flux.
 NATURE OF INDUCED EMF
We can get induced emf from a conductor, whenever there is change in
flux, with that conductor.
We can obtain this from two methods. So, the emf is classified as,
(i)Dynamically induced emf and
(ii)Statically induced emf.
(i) Dynamically Induced emf
When the induced emf is from the mechanical movement of coil with
respect to flux, (or) movement of magnet with respect to stationary coil, then it is
called Dynamically induced
emf.
Eg: DC generator, AC generator.
The induced emf will be given by,
e = Blv sin Ɵ (V).
Direction of dynamically induced emf is found by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 NATURE OF INDUCED EMF
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Stretch the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of right
hand mutually perpendicular to each
other. If fore finger represents the direction of
magnetic field, thumb represents the direction of
motion of conductor then the middle finge
will represent the direction of induced emf.
 NATURE OF INDUCED EMF
(ii)Statically induced emf.
The induced emf in a coil without any mechanical
movement of coil (or) magnet is called stationary induced emf (or)
statically induced emf.
This is achieved by changing the flux associated with a coil,
by increasing (or) decreasing the current through it rapidly.
Statically induced emf is further classified as,
(a) Self induced emf
(b) Mutually induced emf
 NATURE OF INDUCED EMF
(a) Self induced emf
In the set up shown in Fig. the coil is carring a current of I, amps. Due
to this current, flux will be established.
When this current is varied by varying the value of
resistance, the flux linking the coil also changes. So,
an emf will be induced. This is called self- induced
emf.
Simply, the emf induced in a coil due to the change
of its own flux linked with it is called self
induced emf.
The self induced emf will be induced till the
current in the coil is changing and also its direction
can be obtained from Lenz’s law.
 NATURE OF INDUCED EMF
(ii) Mutually induced emf
Consider two coils (Say A and B) which are kept near by.
The change in flux in coil A will change the flux linking with coil B. Due to this an emf
will be induced in coil B. This induced emf is called as mutually induced emf.
Simply, the emf induced in a circuit due to the change in the near by circuit is called as
mutually induced emf.
In Fig. the flux in coil A is linking the coil B.
So, when the current flowing
through coil A (I1) is varied, then Φ1 will be
varied, which inturn changes Φ 12, the flux
linking coil A and coil B. Due to this variation in
the flux linkage, emf will be induced in coil B and
the galvanometer pointer will deflect in one
direction. The current I1 is varied by varying the
resistance R, in the coil A circuit.
ALTERNATING CURRENT
FUNDAMENTALS
 Alternating current

Current which changes periodically both in magnitude and direction

Types of AC waveforms
 GENERATION OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
Direction of mag field

voltage obtained across T1 terminal

T1
T2
• An ac voltage is one that which continually changes in magnitude and periodically
reverses in polarity.
• An ac voltage can be produced by an ac generator, called an alternator. In the
simplified generator as shown in the figure above, the conductor loop connected to
the terminals T & T rotates through magnetic field and cuts lines of force to
generate an induced ac voltage across its terminal T & T as shown in the figure
above.
• One complete revolution of the loop is a cycle. The direction of induced emf is
given by Flemings right hand rule. So the direction of induced emf at terminal T
is away from yourself i.e. pointing into the plane as shown by the first red arrow
in the figure below( in position B).
• The magnitude of induced emf at the positions A, C and A’ are zero so induced
emf has magnitude only in between these magnetic neutral axis points i.e. regions
between A&C, C&A’ etc .

• The above direction of induced emf is for the one side of conductor loop
connected to terminal T
Direction of mag field

T2
T1
T2 T2 T2 T2

Phasor
EMF equation for a coil having N turns of conductor
• Consider a rectangular coil, having N turns as shown below instead of single turn
coil (as explained before) is rotating in a uniform magnetic field, with an angular
velocity of ω radian/second.
• Let time be measured from the X-axis. Maximum flux Φm is linked with the coil,
when its plane coincides with the X-axis. But the rate of change of flux linkages
is zero at this instant (since the linkage doesn’t change for positions just before
and after this instant) so the induced emf is also zero at this instant
• Now in time t seconds, this coil rotates through an angle θ = ω t. In this deflected
position, the component of the flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, is Φ =
Φm cos ωt. Hence, flux linkages of the coil at any time are NΦ = NΦm cos ωt.
• According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the coil
is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil.
• Hence, the value of the induced e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when θ = ω t) or the
instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. is

(Φ )

v= instantaneous value of induced emf or voltage in volts

Φ = Maximum value of flux linkage in webers
N= No of turns in the coil
Φ
𝒎
where Φ
Alternating voltage Alternating current
Average value
rms value
Phase
Phase difference
 Phasor

• An alternating quantity can be represented

1. Graphically
2. Using equation
3. Using phasors
Phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities
j operator