Basic Architecture of Hybrid Drive Trains and Analysis

of Series Drive Train

Basic Architecture of Hybrid Drive Trains and Analysis of Series Drive Train
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
• Energy use in conventional vehicles
• Energy saving potential of hybrid drive trains
• Various HEV configurations and their operation modes
The Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
What exactly is an HEV? The definition available is so general that it anticipates
future technologies of energy sources. The term hybrid vehicle refers to a vehicle with
at least two sources of power. A hybrid-electric vehicle indicates that one source of
power is provided by an electric motor. The other source of motive power can come
from a number of different technologies, but is typically provided by an internal
combustion engine designed to run on either gasoline or diesel fuel. As proposed by
Technical Committee (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International Electrotechnical
Commission, an HEV is a vehicle in which propulsion energy is available from two
or more types of energy sources and at least one of them can deliver electrical
energy. Based on this general definition, there are many types of HEVs, such as:
• the gasoline ICE and battery
• diesel ICE and battery
• battery and FC
• battery and capacitor
• battery and flywheel
• battery and battery hybrids.

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Most commonly, the propulsion force in HEV is provided by a combination of
electric motor and an ICE. The electric motor is used to improve the energy efficiency
(improves fuel consumption) and vehicular emissions while the ICE provides
extended range capability.
Energy Use in Conventional Vehicles
In order to understand how a HEV may save energy, it is necessary first to examine
how conventional vehicles use energy. The breakdown of energy use in a vehicle is as
follows:
• In order to maintain movement, vehicles must produce power at the wheels to
overcome:
a. aerodynamic drag (air friction on the body surfaces of the vehicle, coupled
with pressure forces caused by the air flow)
b. rolling resistance (the resistive forces between tires and the road surface)
b. resistive gravity forces associated with climbing a grade
• Further, to accelerate, the vehicle must its inertia. Most of the energy
expended in acceleration is then lost as heat in the brakes when the vehicle is
brought to a stop.
• The vehicle must provide power for accessories such as heating fan, lights,
power steering, and air conditioning.
• Finally, a vehicle will need to be capable of delivering power for acceleration
with very little delay when the driver depresses the accelerator, which may
necessitate keeping the power source in a standby (energy-using) mode.
A conventional engine-driven vehicle uses its engine to translate fuel energy into shaft
power, directing most of this power through the drivetrain to turn the wheels. Much of
the heat generated by combustion cannot be used for work and is wasted, both
because heat engines have theoretical efficiency limit. Moreover, it is impossible to
reach the theoretical efficiency limit because:
• some heat is lost through cylinder walls before it can do work
• some fuel is burned at less than the highest possible pressure
• fuel is also burned while the engine is experiencing negative load (during
braking) or when the vehicle is coasting or at a stop, with the engine idling.
Although part of engine losses would occur under any circumstances, part occurs
because in conventional drivetrains, engines are sized to provide very high levels of

Page 2 of 43
peak power for the acceleration capability expected by consumers, about 10 times the
power required to cruise at 100Km/h. However, the engines are operated at most
times at a small fraction of peak power and at these operating points they are quite
inefficient.
Having such a large engine also increases the amount of fuel needed to keep
the engine operating when the vehicle is stopped or during braking or coasting, and
increases losses due to the added weight of the engine, which increases rolling
resistance and inertial losses. Even gradeability requirements (example: 55 mph up a
6.5% grade) require only about 60 or 70% of the power needed to accelerate from 0 to
100Km/h in under 12 seconds.
The Figure 1 shows the translation of fuel energy into work at the wheels for a typical
midsize vehicle in urban and highway driving. From Figure 1 it can be observed that:
• At best, only 20% of the fuel energy reaches the wheels and is available to
overcome the tractive forces, and this is on the highway when idling losses are
at a minimum, braking loss is infrequent, and shifting is far less frequent.
• Braking and idling losses are extremely high in urban driving and even higher
in more congested driving, e.g., within urban cores during rush hour. Braking
loss represents 46% of all tractive losses in urban driving. Idling losses
represent about one sixth of the fuel energy on this cycle.
• Losses to aerodynamic drag, a fifth or less of tractive losses in urban driving,
are more than half of the tractive losses during highway driving.

Figure 1:Translation of fuel energy into work in a vehicle

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Energy Savings Potential of Hybrid Drive trains
In terms of overall energy efficiency, the conceptual advantages of a hybrid over a
conventional vehicle are:
• Regenerative braking. A hybrid can capture some of the energy normally lost
as heat to the mechanical brakes by using its electric drive motor(s) in
generator mode to brake the vehicle
• More efficient operation of the ICE, including reduction of idle. A hybrid
can avoid some of the energy losses associated with engine operation at speed
and load combinations where the engine is inefficient by using the energy
storage device to either absorb part of the ICE’s output or augment it or even
substitute for it. This allows the ICE to operate only at speeds and loads where
it is most efficient. When an HEV is stopped, rather than running the engine at
idle, where it is extremely inefficient, the control system may either shut off
the engine, with the storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating or
cooling the vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the engine at a
higher-than-idle (more efficient) power setting and use the excess power (over
auxiliary loads) to recharge the storage device. When the vehicle control
system can shut the engine off at idle, the drivetrain can be designed so that
the drive motor also serves as the starter motor, allowing extremely rapid
restart due to the motor’s high starting torque.
• Smaller ICE: Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the
HEV’s ICE can be down sized. The ICE may be sized for the continuous load
and not for the very high short term acceleration load. This enables the ICE to
operate at a higher fraction of its rated power, generally at higher fuel
efficiency, during most of the driving.
There are counterbalancing factors reducing hybrids’ energy advantage, including:
• Potential for higher weight. Although the fuel-driven energy source on a
hybrid generally will be of lower power and weight than the engine in a
conventional vehicle of similar performance, total hybrid weight is likely to be
higher than the conventional vehicle it replaces because of the added weight of
the storage device, electric motor(s), and other components. This depends, of
course, on the storage mechanism chosen, the vehicle performance
requirements, and so forth.

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 • Electrical losses. Although individual electric drivetrain components tend to
be quite efficient for one-way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations,
electricity flows back and forth through components in a way that leads to
cascading losses. Further, some of the components may be forced to operate
under conditions where they have reduced efficiency. For example, like ICEs,
most electric motors have lower efficiency at the low-speed, low-load
conditions often encountered in city driving. Without careful component
selection and a control strategy that minimizes electric losses, much of the
theoretical efficiency advantage often associated with an electric drivetrain
can be lost.
HEV Configurations
In Figure 2 the generic concept of a hybrid drivetrain and possible energy flow route
is shown. The various possible ways of combining the power flow to meet the driving
requirements are:
i. powertrain 1 alone delivers power
ii. powertrain 2 alone delivers power
iii. both powertrain 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time
iv. powertrain 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
v. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1
vi. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1 and load at the same time
vii. powertrain 1 delivers power simultaneously to load and to powertrain 2
viii. powertrain 1 delivers power to powertrain 2 and powertrain 2 delivers
power ton load
ix. powertrain 1 delivers power to load and load delivers power to powertrain
2.

Page 5 of 43
 Figure 2:Generic Hybrid Drivetrain [1]

The load power of a vehicle varies randomly in actual operation due to frequent
acceleration, deceleration and climbing up and down the grades. The power
requirement for a typical driving scenario is shown in Figure 3. The load power can
be decomposed into two parts:
i. steady power, i.e. the power with a constant value
ii. dynamic power, i.e. the power whose average value is zero

Power [kW] Power [kW] Power [kW]

Dynamic Power
Average power

0 0
=
0
+

Time [s] Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 3: Load power decomposition [1]

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In HEV one powertrain favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell.
The other powertrain in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power. The total
energy output from the dynamic powertrain will be zero in the whole driving cycle.
Generally, electric motors are used to meet the dynamic power demand. This hybrid
drivetrain concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
• Series configuration
• Parallel configuration
• Series-parallel configuration
• Complex configuration
In Figure 4 the functional block diagrams of the various HEV configurations is
shown. From Figure 4 it can be observed that the key feature of:
• series hybrid is to couple the ICE with the generator to produce electricity for
pure electric propulsion.
• parallel hybrid is to couple both the ICE and electric motor with the
transmission via the same drive shaft to propel the vehicle

Fuel IC Fuel IC Mech.

tank engine tank engine coupler
Transmission

Transmission
Generator Generator

Power Power
converter Electric converter Electric
Battery Battery
(elec. motor (elec. motor
coupler) coupler)

Figure 4a: Series hybrid [1] Figure 4b: Series-Parallel hybrid [1 ]

Fuel IC Mech.
tank engine coupler

Fuel IC
Transm ission

Transmission

tank engine
Mech. Po wer Motor/
coupler converter Generator
Power Electric
Battery converter motor
Battery Power Electric
(ele
couplc.
converter motor
er)
Figure 4d: Complex hybrid [1]
Figure 4c: Parallel hybrid [1]

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Series Hybrid System:
In case of series hybrid system (Figure 4a) the mechanical output is first converted
into electricity using a generator. The converted electricity either charges the battery
or can bypass the battery to propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical
transmission. Conceptually, it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV). The
advantages of series hybrid drivetrains are:
• mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC
engine operating at its very narrow optimal region as shown in Figure 5.
• nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multigear
transmission unnecessary.
However, a series hybrid drivetrain has the following disadvantages:
• the energy is converted twice (mechanical to electrical and then to
mechanical) and this reduces the overall efficiency.
• Two electric machines are needed and a big traction motor is required because
it is the only torque source of the driven wheels.
The series hybrid drivetrain is used in heavy commercial vehicles, military vehicles
and buses. The reason is that large vehicles have enough space for the bulky
engine/generator system.

Fuel tank
Torque

Tractive

Motor Speed
effort

Vehicle Speed

Motor Traction Mech.

Engine Generator Rectifier Trans.
controller motor

Engine DC
Operating
DC
Power

region

Battery
Engine Speed pack
Electrical
coupler
Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge

Figure 5: Detailed Configuration of Series Hybrid Vehicle [1]

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Parallel Hybrid System:
The parallel HEV (Figure 4b) allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver
power to drive the wheels. Since both the ICE and EM are coupled to the drive shaft
of the wheels via two clutches, the propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone,
by EM only or by both ICE and EM. The EM can be used as a generator to charge the
battery by regenerative braking or absorbing power from the ICE when its output is
greater than that required to drive the wheels. The advantages of the parallel hybrid
drivetrain are:
• both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels
and no energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
• compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor.
The drawbacks of parallel hybrid drivetrains are:
• mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the
engine operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
• The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared
to series hybrid drivetrain.
Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration. Most
passenger cars employ this configuration.
Series-Parallel System
In the series-parallel hybrid (Figure 4c), the configuration incorporates the features of
both the series and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs an additional
electric machine and a planetary gear unit making the control complex.
Complex Hybrid System
The complex hybrid system (Figure 4d) involves a complex configuration which
cannot be classified into the above three kinds. The complex hybrid is similar to the
series-parallel hybrid since the generator and electric motor is both electric machines.
However, the key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric
motor in complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the
series-parallel hybrid. The major disadvantage of complex hybrid is higher
complexity.

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References:
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
Suggested Reading:
[1] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, CRC Press, 2003

Page 10 of 43
 Lecture 6: Power Flow in HEVs
Power Flow in HEVs
Introduction
The following topics are covered in this lecture
• Power Flow Control
• Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid
• Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid
• Power Flow Control in Series-Parallel Hybrid
Power Flow Control
Due to the variations in HEV configurations, different power control strategies are
necessary to regulate the power flow to or from different components. All the control
strategies aim satisfy the following goals:
• maximum fuel efficiency
• minimum emissions
• minimum system costs
• good driving performance
The design of power control strategies for HEVs involves different considerations
such as:
• Optimal ICE operating point: The optimal operating point on the torque-
speed plane of the ICE can be based on maximization of fuel economy, the
minimization of emissions or a compromise between fuel economy and
emissions.
• Optimal ICE operating line: In case the ICE needs to deliver different power
demands, the corresponding optimal operating points constitute an optimal
operating line.
• Safe battery voltage: The battery voltage may be significantly altered during
discharging, generator charging or regenerative charging. This battery voltage
should not exceed the maximum voltage limit nor should it fall below the
minimum voltage limit.

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Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid
In the series hybrid system there are four operating modes based on the power flow:
• Mode 1: During startup (Figure 1a), normal driving or acceleration of the
series HEV, both the ICE and battery deliver electric energy to the power
converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the wheels via
transmission.
• Mode 2: At light load (Figure 1b), the ICE output is greater than that
required to drive the wheels. Hence, a fraction of the generated electrical
energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the batter takes place till
the battery capacity reaches a proper level.
• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 1c), the electric motor acts
as a generator, which converts the kinetic energy of the wheels into electricity
and this, is used to charge the battery.
• Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even
when the vehicle comes to a complete stop (Figure 1d).

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 F E
F E

G T
G T

B P M
B P M
Figure 1b: Mode 2, light load
Figure 1a: Mode 1, normal driving or acceleration

F E
F E

G G T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 1d: Mode 4, vehicle at stop
Figure 1c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]

B:Battery G: Generator Electrical link

E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power Converter Mechanical link
T: Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)

Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

The parallel hybrid system has four modes of operation. These four modes of
operation are
• Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration (Figure 2a); both the ICE
and the EM share the required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the
relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.
• Mode 2: During normal driving (Figure 2b), the required traction power is
supplied by the ICE only and the EM remains in off mode.
• Mode 3: During braking or deceleration (Figure 2c), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery via the power converter.
• Mode 4: Under light load condition (Figure 2d), the traction power is
delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the battery via the EM.

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 F E
F E

T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 2b: Mode 2, normal driving
Figure 2a: Mode 1, start up

F E
F E

T
T

B P M
B P M
Figure 2d: Mode 4, light load
Figure 2c: Mode 3, braking or deceleration [1]

B:Battery G: Generator Electrical link

E: ICE M: Motor Hydraulic link
F: Fuel tank P: Power Converter Mechanical link

T: Transmission (including brakes, clutches and gears)

Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid

The series-parallel hybrid system involves the features of series and parallel hybrid
systems. Hence, a number of operation modes are feasible. Therefore, these hybrid
systems are classified into two categories: the ICE dominated and the EM
dominated.
The various operating modes of ICE dominated system are:
• Mode 1: At startup (Figure 3a), the battery solely provides the necessary
power to propel the vehicle and the ICE remains in off mode.
• Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration (Figure 3b), both the ICE and the
EM share the required traction power.
• Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 3c), the required traction power is
provided by the ICE only and the EM remains in the off state.
• Mode 4: During normal braking or deceleration (Figure 3d), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery.

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• Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 3e), the ICE delivers
the required traction power and also charges the battery. In this mode the EM
acts as a generator.
• Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 3f), the ICE can deliver
power to charge the battery via the EM

F E F E

G T G T

B P M
B P M

Figure 3a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 3b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M
B P M

Figure 3c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 3d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 3e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 3f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill
[1]

Page 15 of 43
The operating modes of EM dominated system are:
• Mode 1: During startup (Figure 4a), the EM provides the traction power and
the ICE remains in the off state.
• Mode 2: During full throttle (Figure 4b), both the ICE and EM provide the
traction power.
• Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 4c), both the ICE and EM provide the
traction power.
• Mode 4: During braking or deceleration (Figure 4d), the EM acts as a
generator to charge the battery.
• Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving (Figure 4e), the ICE delivers
the required traction power and also charges the battery. The EM acts as a
generator.
• Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill (Figure 4f), the ICE can deliver
power to charge the battery via the EM

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 4a: Mode 1, start up [1] Figure 4b: Mode 2, acceleration [1]

F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure4c: Mode 3, normal drive [1] Figure 4d: Mode 4, braking or deceleration [1]

Page 16 of 43
 F E F E

G T G T

B P M B P M

Figure 4e: Mode 5, battery charging during driving [1] Figure 4f: Mode 6, battery charging during standstill [1]

Power Flow Control Complex Hybrid Control

The complex hybrid vehicle configurations are of two types:
• Front hybrid rear electric
• Front electric and rear hybrid
Both the configurations have six modes of operation:
• Mode 1: During startup (Figure 5a), the required traction power is delivered
by the EMs and the engine is in off mode.
• Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration (Figure 5b), both the ICE and the
front wheel EM deliver the power to the front wheel and the second EM
delivers power to the rear wheel.
• Mode 3: During normal driving (Figure 5c), the ICE delivers power to propel
the front wheel and to drive the first EM as a generator to charge the battery.
• Mode 4: During driving at light load (Figure 5d) first EM delivers the
required traction power to the front wheel. The second EM and the ICE are in
off sate.
• Mode 5: During braking or deceleration (Figure 5e), both the front and rear
wheel EMs act as generators to simultaneously charge the battery.

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 • Mode 6: A unique operating mode of complex hybrid system is axial
balancing. In this mode (Figure 5f) if the front wheel slips, the front EM
works as a generator to absorb the change of ICE power. Through the battery,
this power difference is then used to drive the rear wheels to achieve the axle
balancing.

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5a: Mode 1, startup Figure 5b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM

B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 5d: Mode 4, light load

F E FT F E FT

FP FM FP FM
B RP RM RT B RP RM RT
Figure 5e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 5f: Mode 1, axil balancing

B:Battery FM: Front motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axel
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]

Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link

Page 18 of 43
In Figures 6a-f all the six modes of operation of front electric and rear hybrid is
shown.

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6a: Mode 1, startup Figure 6b: Mode 2, full throttle acceleration

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6c: Mode 3, vehicle propel and battery charging Figure 6d: Mode 4, light load

F E FT F E FT

RP RM RP RM

B FP FM RT B FP FM RT
Figure 6e: Mode 5, braking or decelration Figure 6f: Mode 1, axil balancing

B:Battery RM: Rear motor FP: Front power converter FT: Front axle
transmission E: ICE F: Fuel tank
RM: Rear motor RP: Rear power converter RT: Rear axle transmission [1]

Electrical link
Hydraulic link
Mechanical link

References:
[1] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, CRC Press, 2003
Suggested Reading:
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005

Page 19 of 43
 Lecture 7: Torque Coupling and Analysis of Parallel Drive
Train

Torque Coupling and Analysis of Parallel Drive Train

Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
• Introduction to Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Train
• Torque Coupling
• Speed Coupling
• Post-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
• Pre-Transmission Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling
• Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling
• Complex Hybrid Drivetrain
Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
In case of parallel hybrid drivetrains, the ICE and an electric motor (EM) supply the
required traction power. The power from ICE and EM are added together by a
mechanical coupler, Figure 1. Generally, the mechanical coupling is of two types:
• Torque coupling: In this case the coupler adds the torques of the ICE and EM
together and delivers the total torque to the driven wheels. The ICE and EM
torque can be independently controlled. The speeds of the ICE, EM and the
vehicle are linked together with a fixed relationship and cannot be
independently controlled because of the power conservation constraint.
• Speed coupling: In this case the speeds of the ICE and EM can be added
together and all torques are linked together and cannot be independently
controlled.

Page 20 of 43
 Fuel tank
Final drive
and differential

Engine

Mechanical
Mechanical

Coupler
Transmission

Motor Battery
controller pack

Battery Traction
charger
Battery charge

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Parallel Hybrid Drive Train [1]

Torque Coupling
In Figure 2, a conceptual diagram of mechanical torque coupling is shown. The
torque coupling, shown in Figure 2, is a two-degree-of-freedom mechanical device.
Port 1 is a unidirectional input and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but
both are not input at the same time. Here input means the energy flows into the device
and output means the energy flows out of the device. In case of HEV
• port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
• port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
• port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage

T11 Mechanical
T33
Port 1 torque Port 3
coupler

Port 2

T22

Figure 2:Mechanical torque coupler [2]

Page 21 of 43
For a losses torque coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the torque coupler shown in Figure 1, the power balance is
T33 = T11 + T22
where
T = Propelling torque produced by ICE;  = Speed of ICE (1)
1 1

T2 =Propelling torque produced by EM; 2 = Speed of EM

T3 = Load torque delivered to wheels; 3 = Speed of wheel
The torque coupler can be expressed as
T3 = k1T1 + k2T2
where (2)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the torque coupler

From equation 1 and equation 2 it can be seen that

 
3 = 1 = 2 (3)
k1 k2
A gearbox used in the vehicles is a typical example of torque couple. Some torque
coupler are shown in Figure 3
.
Shaft r1 Pulley or Chain Assembly
ω1 T1 r3
ω2,T2 r

ω1 T1
ω T3
ω1 T1 T3 ω3 3

r
2
r4
r2 ω2 T2 ω2 T2 ω3 T
3

Rotor
Stator r2 r3 r2
k= k= k= k=1
1 2 1 2
r1 r4 r1

r1, r2, r3, and r4---- Radii of pulleys r1 and r2 ----Radii of pulleys

Figure 3a:Configuration of a torque coupler [2] Figure 3b:Configuration of a pulley/chain assembly torque coupler [2]

Page 22 of 43
Speed Coupling
The power produced by two power plants may be coupled together by adding their
speed. This is done with the help of speed coupling devices (Figure 4). The Speed
Coupler is a three port two-degree-of-freedom device. Port 1 is a unidirectional input
and Port 2 and 3 are bi-directional input or output, but both are not input at the same
time. Here input means the energy flows into the device and output means the energy
flows out of the device. In case of HEV
• port 1 is connected to the shaft of an ICE directly or through a mechanical
transmission.
• port 2 is connected to the shaft of an electric motor directly or through a
mechanical transmission
• port 3 is connected to the driven wheels through a mechanical linkage

Mechanical
Speed
coupler
T1, 1 T3 , 3
Port 1 Port 3

T2 , 2
Port 2

Figure 4:Mechanical speed coupler [2]

For a losses speed coupler in steady state, the power input is always equal to the
power output from it. For the speed coupler shown in Figure 4, the speed relation is
3 = k11 + k22
where (4)
k1 , k2 are the structural parameters of the speed coupler

The power relation in case of speed coupler is same as given in equation 1. From
equation 1 and equation 4 it can be seen that
T1 T2
T = = (5)
3
k1 k2

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A typical speed coupler is the planetary gear (Figure 5). The planetary gear unit is a
three port device consisting of
• Sun gear, marked 1 in Figure 5
• Ring gear, marked 2 in Figure 5
• Carrier or Yoke, marked 3 in Figure 5
T2 , 2 2

3 2
rc rr
rs

1 T1,1

3 T3

1
Figure 5a:Planetary gear front view [2] Figure 5b:Planetary gear cut section [2]

For a planetary gear train configuration as shown in Figure 5, the gear ratio (nb) is
given by
 − c zz z r
nb= s = − r c= − r= − r
 − z z z r
r c c s s s

where
s = angular speed of the sun gear
c = angular speed of the carrier gear
r = angular speed of the ring gear
(6)
zs = number of teeth on the sun gear
zr = number of teeth on the ring gear
zc = number of teeth on the carrier gear
rs = radius of the sun gear
rr = radius of the ring gear
rc = radius of the carrier gear

Page 24 of 43
The equation 6 can also be expressed as
nb ( r − c ) =  s − c
 s − nbr − c (1− nb ) = 0 (7)
1 n
 c = 1− n s − 1−bn  r
b b

In the analysis of the planetary gears, rotation and torque in the anticlockwise
direction is assumed to be positive and in the clockwise direction is assumed to be
negative. Using the power balance, the torque acting on each gear is obtained as
Tss + Tcc + Trr = 0 (8)
Substituting the value of c from equation 7 into equation 8 gives
 n 
Ts s + T c  s − b  + T r = 0 r r
1− n 1− n
 b b 
 n 
 T + 1 
Tc  +  T − bT = 0 (9)
s s 1− n r  r 
1− n c
 b   b 
T = −(1 − n )T and T = 1− nb T
c b s c r
nb

If the carrier is attached to a stationary frame (c = 0 ) then from equation 7

s zr rr
n= =− =− (10)
b
r zs rs

and from equation 8 the torque relation is given by

r
T =− Tr
s
s (11)
Tr
 Ts = −
nb

From Figure 5 it can be seen that rr  rs , hence nb  1. If it is assumed that the input

torque is given to the sun gear and the output shaft is connected to the ring gear, then
from equation 10 and equation 11 it can be deduced that
• The output torque ( Tr ) is increased by a factor nb and the direction of the

output torque is same as that of the input torque ( Ts )

• The output speed (  r ) is reduced by a factor of nb and the direction of speed

is reversed with respect to the input speed ( s ).

Page 25 of 43
 In Table 1 all the six possible scenarios of planetary gears are summarized.
Table 1: Planetary gear operation scenarios

Sun Carrie Ring Output Output Output Output Output Output

gear r gear gear Speed Torque speed speed torque torque
directio magnitud directio magnitud
n e n e
Input Output Held s Tr = −nbTs Reverse Decreases Remains Increases
r =
nb
s same
Held Output Input nb 1− nb Remains Decreases Reverse Increases
 =−  Tc = T
c
1− nb
r
nb r
same s

Outpu Input Held s = (1− nb )c T = − Tc Remains Increases Reverse Decreases

t
s
( 1−)nb same s

Held Input Output 1− nb nb Remains Increases Reverse Decreases

r = − c T = T
r c
nb 1- nb
same s

Input Held Output s Tr = −nbTs Reverse Decreases Remains Increases

r =
nb
s same
Outpu Held Input s = nbr Ts = −
Tr Reverse Increases Remains Decreases
nb
t s same

Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling (Post-transmission)

In Figure 6 a two-shaft configuration of parallel HEV using torque coupler is shown.
In this case two transmissions are used:
• Transmission 1 is between the ICE and the torque coupler
• Transmission 2 is between the EM and the torque coupler
Both the transmissions (Transmission 1 and Transmission 2) may be single geared or
multigear. The possible configurations are:
• Configuration 1: Both, Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are multigear.
The tractive effort vs. speed profile is shown in Figure 7a.
• Configuration 2: Transmission 1 is multigear and Transmission 2 is single
geared (Figure 7b)
• Configuration 3: Transmission 1 is single geared and Transmission 2 is
multigear (Figure 7c)

Page 26 of 43
 • Configuration 4: Both, Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are single geared
(Figure 7d)

Clutch

Internal
Transmission Combustion Transmission
Motor
2 Engine (ICE) 1.

Motor
controller

Batteries

Figure 6:Dual transmission parallel hybrid drivetrain [3]

Transmission 1 1st gea

Transmission 2 1st gea
Transmission 1 1st gea
Transmission 2 2nd ge
Transmission1 1st gear
Transmission 1 1st gea
Traction effort [N]

Transmission 2 1st gear

Transmission 2 3rd ge
Traction effort [N]

Transmission 1 2nd ge
Transmission 2 1st gea
Transmission 1 2nd ge
Transmission 2 2nd ge
Transmission 1 2nd gear
Transmission 1 2nd ge Transmission 2 1st gear
Transmission 2 3rd ge
Transmission 1 3rd ge
Transmission 2 1st gea
Transmission 1 3rd ge
Transmission 2 2nd ge
Transmission 1 3rd gear
Transmission 1 3rd ge Transmission 2 1st gear
Vehicle Speed [km/h] Transmission 2 3rd ge

Vehicle Speed [km/h]

Figure 7a: Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are Figure 7b: Transmission 1 is multigear and Transmission 2
multigeared [3] is single geared [3]

Transmission 1 1st gear

Transmission 2 1st gear
Traction effort [N]

Traction effort [N]

Transmission 1 1st gear

Transmission 1 1st ge
Transmission 2 2nd gear
Transmission 2 1st ge

Transmission 1 1st gear

Transmission 2 3rd gear

Vehicle Speed [km/h]

Vehicle Speed [km/h]

Figure 7c: Transmission 1 is single geared and Figure 7d: Transmission 1 and Transmission 2 are single
Transmission 2 is multigear [3] geared [3]

Page 27 of 43
Upon analyzing the tractive effort vs. speed profile of Configuration 1 it can be
concluded that:
• Two multigear transmissions produce many tractive effort profiles. Hence, the
performance and overall efficiency of the drive train may be superior to other
designs because two multigear transmissions provide more opportunities for
both the ICE and the EM-drive (electric motor and the associated power
electronics) to operate in their optimum region.
• This configuration provides more opportunities for both the ICE and EM
characteristics.
• The control system for selecting the proper gear in each transmission is
complicated.
The analysis of Configuration 2 reveals that
• The multigear Transmission 1 is used to overcome the disadvantage of the
ICE speed vs. torque characteristics.
• The multigear Transmission 1 also improves the operating efficiency of the
engine and reduces the speed range of the vehicle in which EM must be used
to propel the vehicle. Hence, the use of EM is restricted and this prevents the
batteries from quickly discharging.
• The single gear Transmission 2 takes the advantage of the high torque of an
EM at low speed.
The Configuration 3 is unfavorable because it does not use the advantages of the two
power plants. The Configuration 4 results in a simple design and control. With
proper ratings of the ICE, EM, batteries and transmission parameters, this drivetrain
can serve the vehicle with satisfactory performance and efficiency.

Page 28 of 43
Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque Coupling (Pre-transmission)
The pre-transmission configuration of a parallel HEV with torque coupling is shown
in Figure 8. In this configuration the transmission is located between the torque
coupler and the drive shaft. The transmission amplifies the torques of both the ICE
and the EM with the same scale. The design of the gear ratios in the torque coupler
enables the EM and ICE to reach their maximum speeds at the same time. This
configuration is suitable when relatively small EM and ICE are used, where a
multigear transmission is needed to enhance the tractive effort at low speeds.
Battery
charger

Motor
controller Ft

Engine
Transmission
V

Tice Tm

ice m
Figure 8: Pre transmission parallel hybrid drive [3]

Page 29 of 43
Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed Coupling
In Figure 9 a parallel hybrid drive train with speed coupling using planetary gear unit
and an EM. The connection of the ICE and the EM is as follows:
• The engine supplies its power to the sun gear through a clutch and
transmission. The transmission is used to modify the speed vs. torque profile
of the ICE so as to match the traction requirements. The transmission may be
single gear or multigear.
• The EM supplies its power to the ring gear through a pair of gears. The Locks
1 and 2 are used to lock the sun gear and ring gear to the stationary frame of
the vehicle in order to implement different modes of operation.
Lock2
Clutch
Lock1

Engine
Trans.

Motor

Batteries Motor
controller

Figure 9: Parallel hybrid drive with speed coupling [1]

There are 5 different modes of operation possible for the configuration as shown in
Figure 10 and they are:
• Hybrid traction: When lock 1 and lock 2 are released, i.e. the sun gear and
the ring gear can rotate both the ICE and EM supply positive speed and torque
to the driven wheels. Since, the output shaft is connected to the carrier gear,
the output torque and speed is give by
Tc = (nb −1 Tss + Trr (12)
)  n −
r b s

1 n
c = 1− n s − 1−bn  r (13)
b b

Page 30 of 43
 • Engine alone traction: When the lock 2 locks the ring gear, only the ICE
delivers the required traction force to the wheels. The output torque and the
speed is given by
Tc = (1− nb ) Ts (14)

1
c =  s
(15)
1− nb

• Motor alone traction: When lock 1 locks the sun gear, only the EM delivers
the traction force to the wheels. The output torque and the speed is given by
1− nb (16)
Tc = Tr
nb
n
 =− b  (17)
c r
1− nb

• Regenerative braking: In this case lock 2 is engaged, the ICE is switched off,
the clutch is disengaged and the EM is controlled in regenerating mode and
the battery absorbs the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• Battery charging from the ICE: In this mode the locks 1 and 2 are released.
The EM is controlled to rotate in the opposite direction, i.e. the EM operates
with positive torque and negative speed and absorbs power from the engine
and delivers it to the battery.

Complex Hybrid Drive Train Drivetrain

In Figure 10, a complex HEV drivetrain with both torque and speed coupling is
shown. This architecture is used by Toyota Prius. The main components of Prius
drivetrain are
• Planetary gear unit: Used for speed coupling
• Fixed Axel Gear: Used for torque coupling
The various power sources of Prius drivetrain are connected as follows:
• The ICE is connected to the carrier gear of the planetary
• A small EM (EM1) is connected to the sun gear
• The ring gear is connected to the driven wheels through axel fixed gear unit
(torque coupler)
• An EM (EM2) is also connected to the fixed angle axel gear unit and forms
the torque coupling configuration.

Page 31 of 43
The rotational speed of the ring gear is given by
1 1− nb
r = s − c (18)
nb nb

Since the ICE is connected to the carrier gear and the EM1 is connected to the sun
gear, the equation 18 can be expressed as
1 1− n
r =  ICE − n b EM 1
nb b

where (19)
ICE = angular speed of the ICE
EM 1 = angular speed of the EM1
The various modes of operation are:
• Mode 1: When the vehicle speed is low and the ICE speed is not so low then
EM1 rotates in the positive direction (same direction as ICE). In this
condition, the EM1 operates in generation mode and a fraction of ICE power
is used to charge the battery.
• Mode 2: At higher vehicle speed, while trying to maintain the engine speed
below a given speed, for high engine operating efficiency, the EM1 may be
operated in negative speed. In this case EM1 acts as a motor and delivers
power to propel the vehicle.
The traction motor EM2 adds additional torque to the torque output from the ring gear
of the planetary gear unit using torque coupling device.
Lock2
Zr
Lock1
Clutch
Zp
Clutch3 Zd

Zb
Zs

Engine
Trans.

Motor

Za Zc
Motor
Batteries
controller
Clutch2

Figure 10: Complex hybrid drive with speed and torque coupling [1]

Page 32 of 43
References
[1] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005
[2] L. Guzzella and A. Sciarretta, Vehicle Propulsion Systems: Introduction to
Modeling and Optimization, Springer, 2007
[3] G. Lechner and H. Naunheimer, Automotive Transmissions: Fundamentals,
Selection, Design and
Application, Springer, 1999

Page 33 of 43
 Lecture 8: Basic Architecture of Electric Drive Trains

Basic Architecture of Electric Drive Trains

Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
• Electric Vehicle (EV) Configuration
• EV alternatives based on drivetrains
• EV alternatives based on power source configuration
• Single and Multi-motor drives
• In wheel drives
Electric Vehicle (EV) Configurations
Compared to HEV, the configuration of EV is flexible. The reasons for this flexibility
are:
• The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than
bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence, distributed subsystems in the EV are
really achievable.
• The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four
wheels and in wheel drives.
In Figure 1 the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
• Electric propulsion
• Energy source
• Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
• The electronic controller
• Power converter
• Electric Motor (EM)
• Mechanical transmission
• Driving wheels

Page 34 of 43
The energy source subsystem consists of
• The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
• Energy management unit
• Energy refueling unit
The auxiliary subsystem consists of
• Power steering unit
• Temperature control unit
• Auxiliary power supply

Page 35 of 43
In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the
electrical link and the blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power converter
which in turn regulates the power flow between the electric motor and the energy
source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control
regenerative braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling
unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels
for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and power steering units.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake
Electronic Power Electric Mechanical
controller converter motor transmission

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Energy Power steering
unit source Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Energy
source

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Page 36 of 43
In modern EV’s configuration:
• Three phase motors are generally used to provide the traction force
• The power converter is a three-phase PWM inverter
• Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and a differential
• Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
The typical setup of the EV is shown in Figure 2.

Electric propulsion subsystem Wheel

Brake 3-phase
Electronic 3-phase Mechanical
PWM transmission
controller AC motor
inverter

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Battery Pack Power steering
unit Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Figure 2:Typical Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration

There are many possible EV configurations due the variations in electric propulsion
and energy sources. Based on these variations, six alternatives are possible as shown
in Figure 3. These six alternatives are
• In Figure 3a a single EM configuration with gearbox (GB) and a clutch is
shown. It consists of an EM, a clutch (C), a gearbox, and a differential (D).
The clutch enables the connection or disconnection of power flow from EM to
the wheels. The gear consists of a set of gears with different gear ratios. With
the use of clutch and gearbox, the driver can shift the gear ratios and hence the
torque going to the wheels can be changed. The wheels have high torque low
speed in the lower gears and high-speed low torque in the higher gears.

Page 37 of 43
 • In Figure 3b a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the clutch is
shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight of the
transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a more
complex control of the EM to provide the necessary torque to the wheels.
• Figure 3c shows a configuration of EV using one EM. It is a transverse front
EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and differential and
they are integrated into a single assembly.
• In Figure 3d a dual motor configuration is shown. In this configuration the
differential action of an EV when cornering can be electronically provided by
two electric motors.
• In order to shorten the mechanical transmission path from the EM to the
driving wheel, the EM can be placed inside a wheel. This configuration is
called in-wheel drive. Figure 3e shows this configuration in which fixed
planetary gearing is employed to reduce the motor speed to the desired wheel
speed.
• In Figure 3f an EV configuration without any mechanical gearing is shown.
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drive can be
realized by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel.

C
M GB D M FG D

Figure 3a: EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3b: EV configuration without clutch and gearbox
differential [1] [1]

FG
M
M
FG
D M
FG

Figure 3c:EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3d:EV configuration with two EM [1]

differential [1]
Page 38 of 43
 FG
M

M
FG
Figure 3e:EV configuration with in wheel motor and Figure 3f:EV configuration with in wheel motor and no
mechanical gear [1] mechanical gear [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source

Configuration
Besides the variations in electric propulsion, there are other EV configurations due to
variations in energy sources. There are five configurations possible and they are:
• Configuration 1: It is a simple battery powered configuration, Figure 4a. The
battery may be distributed around the vehicle, packed together at the vehicle
back or located beneath the vehicle chassis. The battery in this case should
have reasonable specific energy and specific power and should be able to
accept regenerative energy during braking. In case of EVs, the battery should
have both high specific energy and specific power because high specific
power governs the driving range while the high power density governs the
acceleration rate and hill climbing capability.
• Configuration 2: Instead of two batteries, this design uses two different
batteries, Figure 4b. One battery is optimized for high specific energy and the
other for high specific power.
• Configuration 3: In this arrangement fuel cell is used, Figure 4c. The battery
is an energy storage device, whereas the fuel cell is an energy generation
device. The operation principle of fuel cells is a reverse process of electrolysis.
In reverse and electrolysis, hydrogen and oxygen gases combine to form
electricity and water. The hydrogen gas used by the fuel cell can be stored in
an on-board tank whereas oxygen gas is extracted from air. Since fuel cell can
offer high specific energy but cannot accept regenerative energy, it is
preferable to combine it with battery with high specific power and high-energy
receptivity.

Page 39 of 43
 • Configuration 4: Rather than storing it as a compressed gas, a liquid or a
metal hydride, hydrogen can be can be generated on-board using liquid fuels
such as methanol, Figure 4d. In this case a mini reformer is installed in the
EV to produce necessary hydrogen gas for the fuel cell.
• Configuration 5: In fuel cell and battery combination, the battery is selected
to provide high specific power and high-energy receptivity. In this
configuration a battery and supercapacitor combination is used as an energy
source, Figure 4e. The battery used in this configuration is a high energy
density device whereas the supercapacitor provides high specific power and
energy receptivity. Usually, the supercapacitors are of relatively low voltage
levels, an additional dc-dc power converter is needed to interface between the
battery and capacitor terminals.

B
B P P
B

Figure 4a: EV configuration with battery source [1] Figure 4b: EV configuration with two battery sources [1]

FC R FC
P P
B B

Figure 4c: EV configuration with battery and fuel cell Figure 4d: EV configuration with multiple energy sources
sources [1] [1]

B B
P P
C P FW P

Figure 4e: EV configuration with battery and capacitors Figure 4f: EV configuration with battery and flywheel
sources [1] sources [1]

Page 40 of 43
Single and Multi-motor Drives
A differential is a standard component for conventional vehicles. When a vehicle is
rounding a curved road, the outer wheel needs to travel on a larger radius than the
inner wheel. Thus, the differential adjusts the relative speeds of the wheels. If relative
speeds of the wheels are not adjusted, then the wheels will slip and result in tire wear,
steering difficulties and poor road holding. In case of EVs, it is possible to dispense
the mechanical differential by using two or even four EMs. With the use of multiple
EMs, each wheel can be coupled to an EM and this will enable independent control of
speed of each wheel in such a way that the differential action can be electronically
achieved. In Figure 5, a typical dual motor drive with an electronic differential is
shown.

Wheel Wheel
ωout > ωin

ωout ωin

EM 1 EM 2
with fixed with fixed
gearing gearing

Figure 5: Differential action [1]

Page 41 of 43
In Wheel Drives
By placing an electric motor inside the wheel, the in wheel motor has the advantage
that the mechanical transmission path between the electric motor and the wheel can be
minimized. Two possible configurations for in wheel drives are:
• When a high-speed inner-rotor motor is used (Figure 6a) then a fixed speed-
reduction gear becomes necessary to attain a realistic wheel speed. In general,
speed reduction is achieved using a planetary gear set. This planetary gear is
mounted between the motor shaft and the wheel rim. Usually this motor is
designed to operate up to 1000 rpm so as to give high power density.
• In case outer rotor motor is used (Figure 6b), then the transmission can be
totally removed and the outer rotor acts as the wheel rim and the motor speed
is equivalent to the wheel speed and no gears are required.
The tradeoffs of the high-speed inner rotor motor are:
• It has the advantage of smaller size, lighter weight and lower cost
• Needs additional planetary gearset
The tradeoffs of outer-rotor motor are
• Low speed and hence does not need additional gears
• The drawbacks are larger size, weight and cost because of the low speed
design.
Inner-rotor Outer-rotor
Tire Tire

Rim

Rim
PM
Brake
Wheel Brake Motor Winding

Motor Winding Wheel

Bearing
PM Bearing Encoder
Planetary gear set

PM Encoder Bearing
Wheel
Bearing
Motor Winding Motor Winding

Brake
Brake
Wheel PM
Rim Rim

Tire
Tire

Figure 6a: Inner rotor In Wheel drive [1] Figure 6b: Outer rotor In Wheel drive [1]

Page 42 of 43
Considerations of EMs used in EVs
The requirements of EMs used in EVs are:
• Frequent start/stop
• High rate of acceleration and deceleration
• High torque low speed hill climbing
• Low torque cruising
• Very wide speed range of operation
The EMs for EVs are unique and their major differences with respect to industrial
motors in load requirement, performance specification and operating environment are
as follows:
• EV motors need to produce the maximum torque that is four to five times of
the rated torque for acceleration and hill climbing, while industrial motors
generally offer the maximum torque that is twice of the rated torque for
overload operation
• EV motors need to achieve four to five times the base speed for highway
cruising, while industrial motors generally achieve up to twice the base speed
for constant power operation
• EV motors require high power density as well as good efficiency map (high
efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges), while industrial motors are
generally optimized to give high efficiency at a rated point.
• EV motors need to be installed in mobile vehicles with harsh operating
conditions such as high temperature, bad weather and frequent vibration, while
industrial motors are generally located in fixed places.
References:
[1] C. C. Chan and K. T. Chau, Modern Electric Vehicle Technology, Oxford Science
Publication, 2001
Suggested Reading:
[1] I. Husain, Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, CRC Press, 2003
[2] M. Ehsani, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles:
Fundamentals, Theory and Design, CRC Press, 2005

Page 43 of 43