Chapter 5
Modular Forms
Ch. 5
A Motivating Example: The Dedekind Eta Function
The Dedekind eta function η(τ ) is defined for τ ∈ H by the infinite product:
∞
∏
η(τ ) = q 1/24
(1 − q n ), where q = e2iπτ
n=1
Ch. 5
Transformation Laws of the Eta Function
The Dedekind eta function satisfies the following functional equations for τ ∈ C
with Im(τ ) > 0. We state them here without proof.
· η(τ + 1) = eiπ/12 η(τ )
√
· η(−1/τ ) = −iτ · η(τ )
Ch. 5
The Modular Discriminant ∆(τ )
The modular discriminant ∆(τ ) is defined as:
∞
∏
∆(τ ) = η(τ )24 = q (1 − q n )24
n=1
Ch. 5
Symmetries of the Modular Discriminant
Using the transformation laws for η(τ ), we derive the symmetries for ∆(τ ).
· ∆(τ + 1) =
· ∆(−1/τ ) =
( )
a b
These two properties imply that for any γ = ∈ SL2 (Z):
c d
( )
aτ + b
∆ = (cτ + d)12 ∆(τ )
cτ + d
Ch. 5
Eisenstein Series
The Eisenstein series, are defined for even k ≥ 4 as:
∞
2k ∑
Ek (τ ) = 1 − σk−1 (n)q n
Bk n=1
∑ k−1
where σk−1 (n) = d|n d is the divisor function.
Ch. 5
The Poincaré Upper Half-Plane
It is the set of complex numbers with a positive imaginary part:
H = {τ ∈ C | Im(τ ) > 0}
Ch. 5
The Modular Group
( SL2)(Z) acts on H via fractional linear transformations.
The group
a b
For γ = ∈ SL2 (Z):
c d
aτ + b
γ(τ ) =
cτ + d
The modular group is denoted by G = SL2 (Z).
Ch. 5
Generators of the Modular Group
The modular group G is generated by the two fundamental transformations:
S(τ ) = −1/τ and T (τ ) = τ + 1
Ch. 5
Fundamental Domain of the Modular Group
A fundamental domain is a region in H containing exactly one representative
from each orbit of the action.
For the modular group G = SL2 (Z), a fundamental domain is
D = {τ ∈ H : |ℜ(τ )| < 12 , |τ | > 1}.
ℑ(τ )
ℜ(τ )
−1 − 21 0 1 1
2
Ch. 5
Orbits and the Fundamental Domain
ℑ(τ )
ℜ(τ )
−1 − 21 0 1 1
2
Same color = same orbit. One representative lies in D, while the others are obtained by
modular transformations such as T (τ ) = τ + 1, S(τ ) = −1/τ , and ST (τ ) = −1/(τ + 1).
Ch. 5
Congruence Subgroups
Let N be an integer ≥ 1, called the level.
· The principal congruence subgroup of level N is:
{( ) ( ) ( ) }
a b a b 1 0
Γ(N ) := ∈ SL2 (Z) | ≡ (mod N )
c d c d 0 1
· The Hecke subgroups of level N are:
{( ) }
a b
Γ0 (N ) := ∈ SL2 (Z) | c ≡ 0 (mod N )
c d
{( ) }
a b
0
Γ (N ) := ∈ SL2 (Z) | b ≡ 0 (mod N )
c d
· A subgroup Γ is a congruence subgroup if it contains Γ(N ) for some N ≥ 1.
Ch. 5
The Cusps
The cusps are the points on the ‘boundary’ of the upper half-plane H.
This set is the union of the rational numbers and the point at infinity:
Q ∪ {i∞}
Ch. 5
Definition of a Modular Form
A function f : H → C is a meromorphic modular form of weight k for a
congruence subgroup H if:
1. f is meromorphic on H.
( )
a b
2. Modularity Condition: For every γ = ∈ H, the following transformation
c d
law holds:
f (γ(τ )) = (cτ + d)k f (τ )
3. Condition at the Cusps: f is ‘meromorphic at the cusps’. This means the
q-expansion of f at any cusp has only a finite number of terms with negative
exponents.
Ch. 5
Types of Modular Forms
· A modular form is a meromorphic modular form that is holomorphic everywhere,
including at the cusps. This means its q-expansion at any cusp has no terms with
negative exponents.
∞
∑
f (τ ) = an q n
n=0
· A cusp form is a modular form that vanishes at the cusps. This means its
q-expansion at any cusp has a constant term of zero (a0 = 0).
∞
∑
f (τ ) = an q n
n=1
Ch. 5
The Slash Operator Notation
( )
a b
For a function f , an integer k, and a matrix γ = ∈ GL+
2 (R), the slash
c d
operator is defined as:
(f |k γ)(τ ) = (det γ)k/2 (cτ + d)−k f (γ(τ ))
Ch. 5
The Valence Formula
Let f be a non zero meromorphic modular form of weight k for the group SL2 (Z).
The sum of the orders of the zeros and poles of f in a fundamental domain,
weighted by the stabilizer orders of the points, is constant:
1 1 ∑ k
v∞ (f ) + vi (f ) + vρ (f ) + vP (f ) =
2 3 P ∈(H/G)∗
12
Ch. 5
The Space of Modular Forms is Finite-Dimensional
For a given weight k, the spaces of modular forms and cusp forms are
finite-dimensional complex vector spaces. This holds true for:
· The full modular group SL2 (Z): Mk and Sk
· Congruence subgroups like Γ0 (N ): Mk (Γ0 (N )) and Sk (Γ0 (N ))
Ch. 5
The Dimension Formula (k = 2)
µ ν2 ν3 ν∞
dimC S2 (Γ0 (N )) = g = 1 + − − −
12 4 3 2
where:
∏
· µ = [SL2 (Z) : Γ0 (N )] = N p|N (1 + 1/p)
∏ ( ( ))
· ν2 = p|N 1 + −4 p if 4 ∤ N , and 0 otherwise.
∏ ( ( ))
· ν3 = p|N 1 + −3 p if 9 ∤ N , and 0 otherwise.
∑
· ν∞ = d|N,d>0 φ(gcd(d, N/d))
Ch. 5
Decomposition of the Space of Modular Forms
For the full modular group, any modular form f ∈ Mk (for k ≥ 4 even) can be
uniquely written as a sum of an Eisenstein series and a cusp form:
Mk = C · Ek ⊕ Sk .
Ch. 5
The Petersson Inner Product
The Petersson inner product for two cusp forms f, g ∈ Sk (H) is defined by an
integral over a fundamental domain DH :
∫
⟨f, g⟩ = f (τ )g(τ )(Im(τ ))k dµ(τ )
DH
Here, dµ(τ ) = y −2 dx dy is the hyperbolic measure, which is invariant under the
action of SL2 (R). This invariance is crucial for the inner product to be
well-defined.
Ch. 5
Hilbert Space Structure
The Petersson inner product equips the finite-dimensional vector space of cusp
forms Sk (H) with the structure of a Hilbert space.
We now have geometric notions within this space of functions:
√
· Norm: ∥f ∥ = ⟨f, f ⟩
· Orthogonality: Two forms f, g are orthogonal if ⟨f, g⟩ = 0.
Ch. 5
Motivation: The Arithmetic of Modular Forms
· A remarkable property of many modular forms is that their Fourier coefficients a(n)
exhibit multiplicative properties.
· For example, for the cusp form ∆(τ ), the Ramanujan τ -function satisfies
τ (mn) = τ (m)τ (n) for coprime m, n.
∆(τ ) = q − 24q 2 + 252q 3 − 1472q 4 + 4830q 5 − 6048q 6
− 16744q 7 + 84480q 8 − 113643q 9 − 115920q 10
+ 534612q 11 − 370944q 12 − 577738q 13
+ 401856q 14 + 1217160q 15 + · · ·
· The goal of Hecke theory is to explain this phenomenon by introducing a family of
operators, the Hecke operators, that act on the space of modular forms.
Ch. 5
Multiplicative Functions
· A function f : N → C is multiplicative if f (1) = 1 and for any two coprime integers
m, n, it satisfies:
f (mn) = f (m)f (n)
∑
· Examples of multiplicative functions are: σ(n),τ (n), φ(n), σk (n) = d|n dk
· If f is a multiplicative function, then
∑
g(n) = f (d) is also multiplicative.
d|n
Ch. 5
The Hecke Operators
( )
a b
Let n be an integer ≥ 1. Let Mn be the set of integer matrices with
c d
determinant n.
The Hecke operator of index n, Tn , acting on a modular form f ∈ Mk is defined
as: ∑
(Tn f )(τ ) = nk/2−1 (f |k µ)(τ )
µ∈Γ0 (1)\Mn
Ch. 5
Action on q-expansions
∑∞ h,
If f (τ ) = h=0 a(h)q then the q-expansion of Tn f is given by:
∞
∑ ∑ ( )
nh h
(Tn f )(τ ) = dk−1 a q
h=0 d| gcd(n,h)
d2
Ch. 5
Properties of Hecke Operators
∑
Tm Tn = ck−1 T mn
2
.
c
c|gcd(m,n)
· Tm Tn = Tn Tm
· Tm Tn = Tmn if gcd(m, n) = 1
· Tpr+1 = Tp Tpr − pk−1 Tpr−1 if p is prime and r ≥ 1
· Hecke operators Tn are self-adjoint with respect to the Petersson inner product:
⟨Tn f, g⟩ = ⟨f, Tn g⟩
Ch. 5
Definition: Hecke Form
A Hecke form (or Hecke eigenform) is a non-zero modular form f ∈ Mk that is an
eigenvector for all Hecke operators Tn simultaneously.
Tn f = λn f for all n ≥ 1
A Hecke form is said to be normalized if its first Fourier coefficient is a(1) = 1.
For a normalized Hecke form, the eigenvalue is the n-th coefficient: λn = a(n).
Ch. 5
Properties of Fourier Coefficients of Hecke Forms
∑
Let f (τ ) = ∞ n
n=1 a(n)q be a normalized Hecke eigenform of weight k. Then its
Fourier coefficients satisfy the following relations:
· a(mn) = a(m)a(n) if gcd(m, n) = 1
· a(pr+1 ) = a(p)a(pr ) − pk−1 a(pr−1 ) for all primes p and r ≥ 1.
Ch. 5
Eisenstein Series as Hecke Forms
The Eisenstein Series of even index are eigenvectors of all the Hecke operators
∞
2k ∑
Ek (τ ) = 1 − σk−1 (n)q n
Bk n=1
Ch. 5
Hecke Forms as a Basis for Mk
The space of modular forms Mk has a basis consisting of normalized Hecke forms.
Ch. 5
The L-function of a Modular Form
∑
Let f (τ ) = ∞ m=0 a(m)q ∈ Mk be a modular form for SL2 (Z). The L-function
m
of f is defined by:
∑∞
a(m)
L(f, s) =
m=1
ms
This series converges for complex numbers s with Re(s) > k.
Ch. 5
The Euler Product of a Hecke Form
If f is a normalized Hecke form, then its L-function L(f, s) has an Euler product
representation:
∏ 1
L(f, s) = −s
p prime
1 − a(p)p + pk−1−2s
Ch. 5
L-functions for Congruence Subgroups
Let f be a Hecke form of weight k for Γ0 (N ). We modify the definition of the
L-function to account for the primes dividing the level N .
∏ 1 ∏ 1
L(f, s) = −s −s
p|N
1 − a(p)p p∤N 1 − a(p)p + pk−1−2s
Ch. 5
Modular Forms from Lower Levels
Let M and N be positive integers such that M divides N . Let d0 be a divisor of
N/M . If f (z) ∈ Sk (Γ0 (M )), then the function defined by
g(z) = f (d0 z)
is a cusp form of level N , meaning g(z) ∈ Sk (Γ0 (N )).
Ch. 5
Newform
· An oldform in Sk (Γ0 (N )) is a cusp form that is constructed from a form of a lower
level M , where M is a proper divisor of N . The space of all such forms is the
subspace of oldforms, Sk (Γ0 (N ))old .
· The space of newforms, Sk (Γ0 (N ))new , is the orthogonal complement of the oldform
subspace with respect to the Petersson inner product.
Sk (Γ0 (N )) = Sk (Γ0 (N ))old ⊕ Sk (Γ0 (N ))new
· A newform is a form f ∈ Sk (Γ0 (N ))new that is a normalized (a1 (f ) = 1)
eigenfunction for all Hecke operators.
Ch. 5
Galois Representations from Modular Forms
Just as we associate a Galois representation to an elliptic curve, we can extract one
from a Hecke eigenform.
Let f ∈ Sk (Γ0 (N )) be a normalized Hecke eigenform. There exists a Galois
representation ρf,p associated with f :
ρf,p : GQ → GL2 (Qp )
Ch. 5
Constructions of ρf,p by Weight
The geometric tools required to construct ρf,p depend entirely on the weight k:
· Weight 2 (Eichler-Shimura): Constructed using the Tate module of the Jacobian
variety of the modular curve X0 (N ).
· Weight k ≥ 2 (Deligne): Constructed using the étale cohomology of Kuga-Sato
varieties (a higher-dimensional generalization).
· Weight 1 (Deligne-Serre): Constructed by taking limits of Galois representations
associated with forms of higher weights, resulting in a representation with a finite
image.