EMS2TFD-Thermofluids

Week 3- Fluids in Motion

Dr. Gokhan Yilmaz

[Link]@[Link]

1
 What you learnt last week

▪ Importance of pressure for engineering applications

▪ Pressure measurement
Piezometer Manometer

Source: David Chin, 2018, Fluid Mechanics for Engineers in SI Units, Pearson

2
Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave
 Introduction

• Hydrostatics
– Fluid is stationary
– Viscosity, turbulence and friction is ignored
• Characteristics of moving fluids
– Friction between layers of fluid itself (viscosity)
– Friction between fluid and external surface (e.g. pipe
wall)
– Turbulence
• Cases of Fluids in Motion:
– Water or oil pipe networks
– Channels
– Rivers

3
 Visualising Fluid Flow

 Pathline: It is trace made by

single particle over a period of
time.
 Streamline show the mean
direction of a number of
particles at the same instance of Source:
[Link]
time. 17012012/unidad_iv_a_termo_i.pdf

 Streamline can be drawn when

all particles start from same
point, follow each other and
have exactly same path.

4 Flow around cylindrical object

 Visualising Fluid Flow

 Streamtube is an imaginary
tube whose boundary
consists of streamlines.

 The volume flow rate must

be the same for all cross Source:
[Link]

sections of the stream tube.

ube

5
 Fluid Flow
 Rate of flow: Quantity of fluid passing through any
section in a unit time.

Quantity of fluid
Rate of flow =
time

 Type:
volume of fluid
 [Link] flow rate (Discharge): 𝑄=
time

mass of fluid
 2. Mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ =
time

weight of fluid
 3. Weight flow rate 𝐺=
time

6
 Fluid Flow
A
A

L Cross Section

 Let’s consider a pipe in which a fluid is flowing with mean velocity,V (=L/t).
 Let, in unit time, t, volume of fluid (AxL) passes through section

volume of fluid AL
 1. Volume flow rate: Q = = = AV
time t
mass of fluid 𝜌 𝐴𝐿
 2. Mass flow rate: 𝑚ሶ = = = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
time 𝑡

weight of fluid g ( AL )  ( AL )
 3. Weigh flow rate: G = = =
time t t
7
G = AV
 Viscosity
 A fluid is a substance, which deforms continuously, or flows,
when subjected to shearing force

 In fact if a shear stress is acting on a fluid, it will flow and if a

fluid is at rest, there is no shear stress acting on it

 Viscosity defined as internal resistance offered by fluid to flow.

 It is denoted by μ.

 μ : coefficient of viscosity, absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity or

molecular viscosity.
8
 Factors Affecting Viscosity
1. Cohesion
2. Molecular momentum

1. Cohesion: It is the attraction between molecules of fluid. More the

molecular attraction (cohesion) more is the viscosity (resistance to
flow) of fluid.
It is dominant in liquids.

2. Molecular momentum: Molecules in any fluid change their

position with time and is known as molecular activity. More the
molecular activity more will be viscosity of the fluid.
It is dominant in gases.

9
 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
For Liquids:
 In case of liquids, cohesion (molecular
attraction is dominant). Therefore, if the
temperature of liquid is increased, its
cohesion and hence viscosity will
decrease.
1
𝜇𝛼
𝑇

For Gases:
 In gases momentum exchange is
dominant. Therefore, if the temperature
of gases is increases, its momentum
exchange will increase and hence
viscosity will increase.
10 𝜇𝛼𝑇
 Kinematic Viscosity
 It is ratio of dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
 It is denoted by (nu)


=


11
 Newton’s Equation of Viscosity

Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave

12
 Newton’s Equation of Viscosity

𝑈
𝐹= 𝜇𝐴
𝑑

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝜏 = 𝐹/𝐴

𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑈/𝑑

du
 =
dy

13
 Newton’s Equation of Viscosity
du
 =
dy
 The above equation is called as Newton’s equation of viscosity.
 The equation shows that the shearing stress is directly proportional
to the velocity gradient and it is known as Newton’s law of
viscosity.
 In the above equation
 du/dy= velocity gradient or rate of change of deformation
 μ = dynamic viscosity UNITS IN SI
Viscosity Ns/m =kg/(ms)
2

 τ=shear stress
Typical Value for water: Kinematic Viscosity m2/s
1.14 x 10-3 kg/ms

14
 Example
A flat plate 200mm x 750mm slide on oil (μ =0.85 Ns/m2) over a large
surface as shown. What force, F, is required to drag the plate at a
velocity (U) of 1.2m/s if the thickness of the separating oil film is
0.6mm?

F U du
 = = =
A y dy
du U
F = A =  A= A
dy y

F =
U
A = 0.85
1.2
(0.2  0.75)
y 0.6 / 1000
F = 255 N

Source: E.J. Finnemore, and J.B. Franzini, [Link] Mechanics with Engineering Applications, McGraw Hill

15
 Shear Stress ~ Velocity Gradient Curve

 Ideal Fluid: The fluid which does not

offer resistance to flow
 = 0  = 0
 Newtonian Fluid: Fluid which obey
Newton’s law of viscosity
du

dy
slope of curve is constant
 Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluid which
does not obey Newtown’s Law of
viscosity- slope of curve changing
continuously

16
 Types of Flow
Depending upon fluid properties
 Ideal and real flow
 Incompressible and compressible flow

Depending upon properties of flow

 Laminar and turbulent flow
 Steady and unsteady flow
 Uniform and non-uniform flow

17
 Ideal and Real Flow

• Ideal fluid
– Has no viscosity, not affected by turbulence
– Frictionless and incompressible
• Real fluid
– Fluid has viscosity and is affected by friction
– Compressible

18 Velocity distribution of pipe flow

 Compressible and Incompressible Flows
 Incompressible fluid flows assumes the fluid have constant density
while in compressible fluid flows density is variable and becomes
function of temperature and pressure.

P1 P2 P1

P2
v1 v2 v1

v2 v2

Incompressible fluid Compressible fluid

19
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
 The flow in laminations (layers) is Laminar Flow
termed as laminar flow while the – Associated with slow moving,
case when fluid flow layers viscous fluids
intermix with each other is termed – Characterized by smooth and
as turbulent flow. parallel streamlines
– Highly ordered motion
• Example: flow of honey

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

– Associated with faster and chaotic
motion of fluids
– Characterized by velocity
fluctuations and highly disordered
Turbulent flow motion
• Example: flow in the streams
20
 Experimental Decision of Flow
Type-Reynold’s Experiment

Reynold introduced a dye into a

pipe containing water

– Laminar flow
• Filament of dye remained
intact. The particles moved
slowly and uniformly. The
particles flowed one another
along the same path

– Turbulent flow
• Particles moved randomly

 Transition of flow from Laminar to turbulent

21
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

 Reynolds number (Re)

Re = VD = VD
 
Where V = mean velocity
D = diameter of pipe

 For pipe flow

 Re < 2000 is laminar flow
 2000 < Re < 4000 is transitional flow
 Re > 4000 is turbulent flow

 It can be seen that it has no units. A quantity that has no units is

known as a non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity.
22
 Steady and Unsteady Flow
X
 Steady flow: It is the flow in
which discharge (flow rate)[and
mean velocity] remains constant V
with respect to time at a X
particular section Longitudinal Section
𝜕𝑉
= 0; ⇒ 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑡

 Unsteady flow: It is the flow

𝜕𝑉
in which flow rate (discharge) ≠ 0; ⇒ 𝑉 variable
𝜕𝑡
changes with respect to time at
a particular section.

23
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
X
Uniform flow: It is the flow in
which conditions of flow (cross
sectional area and mean velocity) V
remains constant from section to
section. X
Longitudinal Section
 e.g., Constant discharge through
𝜕𝑉
a constant diameter pipe 𝜕𝑥
= 0; ⇒ 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Non-uniform flow: It is the flow

in which conditions of flow does
not remain constant from section V
to section.
 e.g., Constant discharge through X
Longitudinal Section
variable diameter pipe
𝜕𝑉
≠ 0; ⇒ 𝑉 variable
𝜕𝑥
24
 Describe Flow Condition
 Constant discharge through  Variable discharge through
variable diameter pipe variable diameter pipe
X X

V V

X X
Longitudinal Section Longitudinal Section

Steady flow !! Unsteady flow !!

Non-uniform flow !! Non-uniform flow !!

Steady-non-uniform flow unsteady-non-uniform flow

25
 Flow Combinations

Example Type
A long pipe in which the Steady uniform flow
same pressure and velocity
exist from one instant to
another at all points along its
length
An expanding pipe with a
Unsteady non-uniform flow
decreasing rate of flow
A wave traveling down a river Unsteady non-uniform flow
channel
An expanding pipe with a
Steady non-uniform flow
constant rate of flow

26
One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows
 Although in general all fluids flow three-dimensionally, with
pressures and velocities and other flow properties varying in all
directions, in many cases the greatest changes only occur in two
directions or even only in one. In these cases changes in the other
direction can be effectively ignored making analysis much more
simple.
 Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity,
pressure, depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary in the
direction of flow and not across the cross-section

Mean
Water surface velocity

Longitudinal section of rectangular channel Cross-section Velocity profile

27
 Three Important Equations

 The Continuity equation

 The Momentum equation
 The Energy equation
These 3 equations are sufficient to solve most problems in hydraulics.

 Conservation Relations
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of momentum
 Conservation of energy

28
 Continuity
 Conservation of mass: Matter cannot be
created or destroyed - (it is simply
changed into a different form of matter).
 The principle is applied to fixed
volumes, known as control volumes
shown in figure:
An arbitrarily shaped control volume.

For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says

Mass entering per unit time - Mass leaving per unit time = Increase of mass in the control volume
per unit time

29
 Continuity Equation
 For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control
volume, so
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time
𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2
𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1
𝑚ሶ 2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

Assuming incompressible fluid : 1 =  2 = 

A1V1 = A2V2 Q1 = Q2 Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q4

For steady flow of incompressible fluids volume flow rate remains same from section to
section.
Source: D. Giancoli,
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 7th Ed.,
Prentice Hall.
30
 Example

A pipe of diameter 0.2 m increases gradually to 0.3 m. If it

carries 0.08 m3/s of water, what are the velocities at the two
sections?

Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave

31
 Example
 If pipe 1 diameter is 50 mm, mean velocity in
pipe 1 is 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter is 40mm and it
takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter
is 60 mm. What are the values of discharge and
mean velocity in each pipe? (Steady flow)

32
EMS2FLM Fluid Mechanics– Week 4

Momentum Equation
Momentum = mass x velocity = mV
• Newton’s laws of motion:
– Law 1: A body will remain in the same condition of rest or of motion
with uniform velocity in a straight line until acted upon by an external
force
– Law 2: The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the force acting upon it and takes place in the line of action of the
force.
• For a body of mass, m:
• Force = rate of change of momentum = (mV2 – mV1)/t
• or, Force (F) = m (V2 – V1)/t meaning F = ma
• V1 and V2: initial and final velocities of the body. t : the time over
which the change of velocity occurs, and a: acceleration of the body.
– Law 3: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
33
EMS2FLM Fluid Mechanics– Week 4

Application of Momentum

• Conservation of momentum
– A body cannot gain or loose momentum unless an external force is
applied to it

• How is conservation of momentum applicable to hydraulics?

– Apply them in Hydraulics such that we are able to analyse situations
where the liquid interacts with a solid surface, such as a pipe or a wall,
and we want to calculate the force exerted on the surface.

34
EMS2FLM Fluid Mechanics– Week 4

Continuity Equation for Hydraulics

𝐹 =𝑚 ×𝑎

𝑚 × (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑚
𝐹= = 𝑉 − 𝑉1
𝑡 𝑡 2
𝑚
𝑚ሶ = = 𝜌 × 𝑄
𝑡
𝐹 = 𝜌 × 𝑄 × 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

Note: Velocity is a vector quantity, therefore directions must be

considered in calculations.

35
 Applying Momentum Equation

36 Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave

 Control Volume

 Concept of control volumes commonly used for

momentum equation application

 Essentially involves “splitting” the whole system to isolate

area of interest

 Possible as long as all external forces acting on system

included

37
 Control Volume

2 2
P2A2
1 1

P1A1

FR

 1-2: Control volume with all external forces applied on it

38
 Pipe Bends

Find forces acting on the control volume

෍ 𝐹 = 𝜌 × 𝑄 × (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
39
Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave
 Pipe Bends

40
Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave
 Example

Water flows at 35 l/s in a 200mm diameter pipe

where the pressure is 65kPa. The pipe bends through
60 in the horizontal plane, and reduces to 100mm.
Find the force exerted by the bend. Neglect friction
losses.
100mm

200mm 60

41
Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave
 Q 0.035 0.035
V1 = = = = 1.11m/s
A1  D1 
2
  0 .2 
2

 4    
   4 
Q 0.035 0.035
V2 = = = = 4.46m/s
A2  D2 
2
  0 .1 
2

 4    
   4 
2 2 100mm
P1 V1 P2 V2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 2
g 2 g g 2 g
Z1 = Z 2 = 0
1
65 10 3
1.112
P2 4.46 2
60
 + = + 200mm
1000  9.81 2  9.81 1000  9.81 2  9.81
y  FRX

 P2 = 55.7kPa FRY FR
x
P1 A1 − P2 A2 Cos - FRx = Q(V2 Cos − V1 )
  0.2 2  3   0.1 
2
 65  10 
3
 − 55.7  10  Cos60 - FRx =
 4   4 
1000  0.035(4.46 Cos60 - 1.11)
 FRx = 1780 N

P1 A1 − P2 A2 sin + FRy = Q (V2 sin − V1 )

  0.12 
 0 − 55.7  10 

3

Sin 60 + FRy =
 4 
1000  0.035(4.46 Sin 60 - 0 )
 FRy = 514 N

43
 FR = FRx + FRy  FR = 1780 2 + 5142 = 1850kN
2 2

 FRy   514 
 = tan 
−1
   = tan  −1
 = 16 . 1

 FRx   1780 
2
100mm

200mm 60
 FRX

FRY FR
44
 Momentum Equation Applications

 When water passes through a pipe section that tapers, a

force is exerted on the section
e.g. pipe reducer, pipe nozzle
 May have to secure reducer/nozzle using thrust blocks or
bolts
 Momentum equation used to determine force exerted

F
45 bolts securing
nozzle
 Nozzles

46
Source: Les Hamill, Understanding Hydraulics, Third Edition, Palgrave
 Example
 A horizontal pipeline reduces in diameter using a
standard. Symmetrical taper section as shown below.
Given the following information, calculate the force
exerted by the water on the taper section.
Q = 0.42m3/s

P = 22.85 m of water
P = 25.3m of water D2 = 0.3m
D1 = 0.6m

47
 Solution
 Apply the continuity equation to determine velocities

Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2
 D12   D2 2 
 0.42 = V1   = V2 
 


 4   4 
  0.6 2    0.32 
 0.42 = V1   = V2  
 4   4 
 V1 = 1.48m/s
 V2 = 5.92m/s V1 V2

48
 Solution
 Applying momentum equation in the x direction:
FR = P1 A1 − P2 A2 − Q(V2 − V1 )
  0.6 2    0.32 
 FR = g 25.3  − g 22.85  −   0.42(5.92 − 1.48)
 4   4 
 FR = 52.46kN

P1 A1
P2 A2
V1 V2 V1 V2

FR

49
 Momentum Correction Coefficient
Definition

 Mean flow velocity (used before) is an approximation,

which is sometimes not valid
 To allow for the effect of variations in velocity across a
section, a momentum correction coefficient can be
introduced

F = Q(V2 − V1 )

50
 Momentum Correction Coefficient

Condition Typical  value

Normal turbulent pipe flow 1.02

Normal open channel flow 1.03 – 1.07

Natural stream 1.05 – 1.17

Flooded river valley 1.17 – 1.33

QUESTIONS???