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Python Notes 1

Introduction to python programming (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON
PROGRAMMING- MODULE1

[Link] G S and Palguni GT

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Contents
No Syllabus Page
1.1 Python Basics: Entering Expressions into the Interactive Shell, The Integer,
Floating-Point, and String Data Types, String Concatenation and Replication,
Storing Values in Variables, Your First Program, Dissecting Your Program,
2- 31
1.2 Flow control: Boolean Values, Comparison Operators, Boolean Operators, 31-67
Mixing Boolean and Comparison Operators, Elements of Flow Control,
Program Execution, Flow Control Statements, Importing Modules, Ending a
Program Early with [Link](),
1
1.3 Functions: def Statements with Parameters, Return Values and return 68-97
Statements,The None Value, Keyword Arguments and print(), Local and
Global Scope, The global Statement, Exception Handling, A Short Program:
Guess the Number
2.1 Lists: The List Data Type, Working with Lists, Augmented Assignment
Operators, Methods, Example Program: Magic 8 Ball with a List, List-like
Types: Strings and Tuples, References,
2
2.2 Dictionaries and Structuring Data: The Dictionary Data Type, Pretty
Printing, Using Data Structures to Model Real-World Things,
3.1 Manipulating Strings: Working with Strings, Useful String Methods,
Project: Password Locker, Project: Adding Bullets to Wiki Markup
3.2 Reading and Writing Files: Files and File Paths, The [Link] Module, The
File Reading/Writing Process, Saving Variables with the shelve Module,Saving
3 Variables with the [Link]() Function, Project: Generating Random Quiz
Files, Project: Multiclipboard
4.1 Organizing Files: The shutil Module, Walking a Directory Tree,
Compressing Files with the zipfile Module, Project: Renaming Files with
American-Style Dates to European-Style Dates,Project: Backing Up a Folder
4
into a ZIP File,
4.2 Debugging: Raising Exceptions, Getting the Traceback as a String,
Assertions, Logging, IDLE‟s Debugger.
5.1 Classes and objects: Programmer-defined types, Attributes, Rectangles,
Instances as return values, Objects are mutable, Copying,
5.2 Classes and functions: Time, Pure functions, Modifiers, Prototyping versus
planning,
5 5.3 Classes and methods: Object-oriented features, Printing objects, Another
example, A more complicated example, Theinit method, The __str__ method,
Operator overloading, Type-based dispatch, Polymorphism, Interface and
implementation,

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1.1 Python Basics

1.1.1 Introduc琀椀on: Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interac琀椀ve, object-
oriented, and high-level programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum during 1985- 1990. Python is named a昀琀er a TV Show called ‘Monty Python’s
Flying Circus’ and not a昀琀er Python-the snake. Some of the Features that Makes
Python more popular are:
• Python is Simple and Easy to learn and code.
• Python is Free and Open Source. It is freely available at the
[Link] Python source code is also available to the public,
one can download it, use it, and share it.
• Python is High Level Language and supports both Procedure oriented and
Object-Oriented Language concepts along with dynamic memory
management.
• Python is portable. Python code can be run on any platforms like Linux, Unix,
Mac and Windows.
• Python is extensible and integrated. Python code can be extended and
integrated with among other languages like C, C++, Java, etc.
• Python is an interpreted language. Python code is executed line by line at a
time and there is no need to compile, which makes debugging easier. The
• Python has rich set of libraries for data analytics, machine learning, artificial
intelligence, deep learning, mathematical computation, web app
development, mobile app development, testing, etc.
• Python is a dynamically typed language. Here the data type for variable is
decided at run time. As a result, there is no need to specify the type of
variable.

1.1.2 Why One Should Learn Python Program?

Python Programming is a fun, crea琀椀ve and rewarding ac琀椀vity. Python is one of the
most widely used programming language across the world for developing so昀琀ware
applica琀椀ons. It is named as one of top picked programming languages of most of
the universi琀椀es and industries. Python developer is one of the “10 Most in Demand
Tech Jobs of 2019”[ Source : h琀琀ps://[Link]/ ] As of February 23,

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2019, the average salary for a Python developer is $123,201 per year in the
United States, making it one of the most popular and lucrative careers today
[source: [Link]
Python can be used on the following:
1. Multiple Programming Paradigms
2. Web Testing
3. Data Extraction
4. Artificial Intelligence
5. Machine Learning
6. Data Science
7. Web Application and Internet Development
8. Cybersecurity

Entering Expressions into the interactive Shell

In Python, expressions are combinations of values, variables, operators, and function
calls that can be evaluated to produce a result. They represent computations and
return a value when executed. Here are some examples of expressions in Python:

Examples: 17, x, x+17 , 1+2*2 , X**2, x**2 + y**2

Entering expressions into the Python interactive shell allows you to evaluate and
execute code in real-time. You can use the shell as a convenient way to test and
experiment with Python code. Here are some examples of entering expressions into
the Python interactive shell:

Arithmetic Operations:
You can perform basic arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, directly in the shell. For example:
>>> 2 + 3
5
>>> 4 * 5
20
>>> 10 / 3
3.3333333333333335

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Variable Assignment:
You can assign values to variables and use those variables in expressions. For
example:
>>> x = 5
>>> y = 2
>>> x + y
7
>>> x * y
10

Function Calls:
You can call built-in functions or user-defined functions within the shell. For
example:
>>> abs(-10)
10
>>> len("Hello, World!")
13
>>> def add(a, b):
... return a + b
...
>>> add(3, 4)
7

Boolean Expressions:
You can use boolean operators like and, or, and not to evaluate logical expressions.
For example:
>>> True and False
False
>>> True or False
True
>>> not True
False

Conditional Statements:
You can use conditional statements like if, elif, and else to perform different actions
based on conditions. For example:
>>> x = 10

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>>> if x > 0:
... print("Positive")
... elif x < 0:
... print("Negative")
... else:
... print("Zero")
...
Positive

Value: A value is a le琀琀er or a number. In Python, a value is a fundamental piece of

data that can be assigned to variables, used in expressions, and manipulated by
opera琀椀ons. Values can be of di昀昀erent types, such as numbers, strings, booleans,
lists, tuples, dic琀椀onaries, and more. Each type of value has its own characteris琀椀cs
and behaviors.

Examples :

x = 10 # integer
y = 3.14 # 昀氀oa琀椀ng-point number
z = 2 + 3j # complex number
name = "John" # string
message = 'Hello, World!' # string
is_true = True # Boolean Value
is_false = False
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange"]
coordinates = (10, 20)
person = ("John", 30, "USA")
student = {"name": "John", "age": 20, "grade": "A"}

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type() func琀椀on :

In Python, the type() func琀椀on is used to determine the type of a given object or
value. It returns the data type of the object as a result. The type() func琀椀on is
par琀椀cularly useful when you need to programma琀椀cally determine the type of a
variable or check if a value belongs to a speci昀椀c data type. Here's an example:

Example: 1,2 and “Hello, World!”. Types are the data types to which the Values
belong.
type(arg) func琀椀on returns the data type of the argument as illustrated below :

x=5
y = 3.14
name = "John"
is_true = True
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange"]
student = {"name": "John", "age": 20}

print(type(x)) # <class 'int'>

print(type(y)) # <class '昀氀oat'>
print(type(name)) # <class 'str'>
print(type(is_true)) # <class 'bool'>
print(type(fruits)) # <class 'list'>
print(type(student)) # <class 'dict'>

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Data types
In Python, data types represent the classi昀椀ca琀椀on or categoriza琀椀on of values. Each
data type de昀椀nes the opera琀椀ons that can be performed on the values, the storage
format, and the behavior of the values. Python supports several built-in data types.
Here are the commonly used data types supported in Python, along with examples:

Numeric Data Types:

int: Integers represent whole numbers, posi琀椀ve or nega琀椀ve, without decimal

points.
Example: x = 5
昀氀oat: Floa琀椀ng-point numbers represent decimal or 昀氀oa琀椀ng-point values.
Example: y = 3.14
complex: Complex numbers consist of a real and an imaginary part.
Example: z = 2 + 3j

String Data Type:

str: Strings represent sequences of characters enclosed in single quotes (' ') or
double quotes (" ").
Example: name = "John"

Boolean Data Type:

bool: Booleans represent either True or False, deno琀椀ng logical values.

Example: is_true = True

Sequence Data Types:

list: Lists are ordered collec琀椀ons of items enclosed in square brackets ([]). They can
contain values of any type and are mutable.
Example: fruits = ["apple", "banana", "orange"]
tuple: Tuples are similar to lists but are enclosed in parentheses (()). They are
immutable, meaning their values cannot be changed once de昀椀ned.
Example: coordinates = (10, 20)
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Mapping Data Type:

dict: Dic琀椀onaries are unordered collec琀椀ons of key-value pairs enclosed in curly

braces ({}). They provide a way to associate values with unique keys.
Example: student = {"name": "John", "age": 20}

Set Data Type:

set: Sets represent unordered collec琀椀ons of unique elements enclosed in curly

braces ({}). They do not allow duplicate values.
Example: numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

None Type:

None: The None type represents the absence of a value or a null value. It is o昀琀en
used to indicate the absence of a meaningful result.
Example: result = None

String Concatena琀椀on and Replica琀椀on

String concatena琀椀on and replica琀椀on are opera琀椀ons that allow you to combine and
repeat strings in Python. Here's an explana琀椀on of each opera琀椀on with examples:

String Concatena琀椀on:

String concatena琀椀on is the process of combining two or more strings together to

create a single string. In Python, you can concatenate strings using the + operator.
Here's an example:
gree琀椀ng = "Hello"
name = "John"
message = gree琀椀ng + " " + name
print(message) # Output: Hello John

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In this example, the + operator is used to concatenate the strings gree琀椀ng, a space
(" "), and name, resul琀椀ng in the string "Hello John". The concatenated string is then
stored in the message variable and printed.

String Replica琀椀on:

String replica琀椀on allows you to repeat a string mul琀椀ple 琀椀mes. In Python, you can
replicate a string by using the * operator. Here's an example:

fruit = "apple"
repeated_fruit = fruit * 3
print(repeated_fruit) # Output: appleappleapple

In this example, the * operator is used to replicate the string "apple" three 琀椀mes,
resul琀椀ng in the string "appleappleapple". The replicated string is stored in the
repeated fruit variable and printed.

String concatena琀椀on and replica琀椀on can be combined to achieve more complex

string opera琀椀ons. Here's an example that demonstrates both concatena琀椀on and
replica琀椀on:

word = "Hi"
punctua琀椀on = "!"
gree琀椀ng = word * 3 + punctua琀椀on
print(gree琀椀ng) # Output: HiHiHi!

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Variables:
A variable is a name that refers to a value. In Python, a variable is a named storage
loca琀椀on that holds a value. It allows you to assign values to iden琀椀昀椀ers and refer to
those values by using the iden琀椀昀椀ers later in the program. An assignment statement
creates new variables as illustrated in the example below:

x = 10

In this example, the value 10 is assigned to the variable x. Now, x holds the value
10, and you can refer to it later in the program.

Examples:

Message = ‘Python Programming ‘,

p =1000, t= 2, r=3.142,
Si = p*t*r/100,
pi = 3.1415926535897931,
area_of _circle = pi*r*r.

To know the type of the variable one can use type () func琀椀on. Ex: type(p)
To display the value of a variable, you can use a print statement:
Ex: print (Si) ; print(pi)

Rules for wri琀椀ng Variable names

1. Variable names can be a combina琀椀on of le琀琀ers in lowercase (a to z) or

uppercase (A to Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore (_).
2. Variable names cannot start with a number/digit.
3. Keywords cannot be used as Variable names.
4. Special symbols like !, @, #, $, % etc. cannot be used in Variable names.
5. Variable names can be of any length.
6. Variable name must be of single word.

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Table: Valid Variable Names and Invalid Variable Names

Valid Variable Names Invalid Variable Names
python12 current- account(hyphens are not allowed)
Simple savings account (spaces are not allowed)
interest_year 4freinds (can’t begin with a number)
_rate_of_interest 1975 (can’t begin with a number)
_spam 10April_$ (cannot begin with a number and special
characters like $ are not allowed)
HAM Principle#@( special characters like # and @ are not
allowed)
account1234 ‘bear’ ( special characters like ‘ is not allowed)

Note:

Variable names are case-sensi琀椀ve, meaning that velocity, VELOCITY, Velocity, and
velocity are four di昀昀erent variables. It is a Python conven琀椀on to start your variables
with a lowercase le琀琀er.

Storing Values in a Variables:

Values can be stored in a variable using an Assignment statement. An assignment

statement consists of a variable name, an equal (=) sign and the value to be stored.

Example 1:

x = 40

In this example, the value 10 is assigned to the variable x. The variable x now holds
the value 10, and you can use x to refer to that value throughout the program.

Example 2:

a, b, c = 1, 2, 3

In this example, the values 1, 2, and 3 are assigned to variables a, b, and c respectively.
Each value is assigned to its corresponding variable based on the order of appearance.

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Example 3:

x=5
y=3
result = x + y

In this example, the variables x and y hold the values 5 and 3 respectively. The
expression x + y is evaluated, and the result 8 is assigned to the variable result.

Example 4:

x = 10
x = x + 5 # x is updated to 15

In this example, the variable x initially holds the value 10. The expression x + 5
evaluates to 15, and that value is assigned back to the variable x.

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My First Program :

# This program demonstrates the usage of common built-in functions in Python

# Using the print() function to display a message

print("Welcome to the Python function demo!")

# Using the len() function to determine the length of a string

text = input("Enter a word or phrase: ")
length = len(text)
print("The length of the entered text is:", length)

# Using the input() function to get user input

name = input("Enter your name: ")
age = input("Enter your age: ")

# Using the int() function to convert a string to an integer

age = int(age)
age_in_future = age + 10
print("In 10 years, you will be", age_in_future, "years old.")

# Using the str() function to convert an integer to a string

message = "Hello, " + name + "! You are " + str(age) + " years old."
print(message)

Dissecting the Sample Program

Sample program comprises executable statements containing comments and built in

functions like print () , input () , len() , int() and str().

Explanation of the program:

The program starts with a comment explaining the purpose of the program.
The print() function is used to display the welcome message.
The input() function is used to prompt the user to enter a word or phrase. The value
entered by the user is stored in the text variable.

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The len() function is used to determine the length of the text string, and the result is
stored in the length variable.
The program displays a message with the length of the entered text using the print()
function.
The input() function is used again to get the user's name and age. The values entered
by the user are stored in the name and age variables, respectively.
The int() function is used to convert the age value from a string to an integer.
The program calculates the user's age in 10 years by adding 10 to the age variable,
and the result is stored in the age_in_future variable.
The program displays a message with the user's name, age, and the calculated age in
10 years using the print() function.
The str() function is used to convert the age integer back to a string so that it can be
concatenated with other strings in the message variable.
The final message is displayed using the print() function.

The program demonstrates the usage of these functions: print() for displaying
messages, len() for determining the length of a string, input() for obtaining user
input, int() for converting a string to an integer, and str() for converting an integer to
a string.

Comments:

Comments are readable explanation or descriptions that help programmers better

understand the intent and functionality of the source code. Comments are completely
ignored by interpreter.

Advantages of Using Comments:

1. Makes code more readable and understandable.

2. Helps to remember why certain blocks of code were written.
3. Can also be used to ignore some code while testing other blocks of code.

Single Line Comments in Python:

The hash symbol #is used to write a single line comment.

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Example:

# Printing a message
print(“ Enter your Name “)
myName = input (“ Enter Your Name”) # Read your name to myName

Multiline Comments in Python:

1. Using # at the beginning of each line of comment on multiple lines

Example:
# It is a
# multiline
# comment

2. Using String Literals ''' at the beginning and end of multiple lines

Example:
'''
I am a
Multiline comment!
'''
The print() Function :

The print function is used to display the string value written within pair of double
quotes inside the parentheses on the screen .

print('It is Good to meet you, ' + myName)

print('The length of your name is:')
print(len(myName))
print('You Will be ' + str(int(myAge)+1) + ' in a year.')

The line print('The length of your name is:') means “Print out the text in the string ‘'The
length of your name is:’ . When Python executes the print statement, python interpreter
calls the print()function and the string value is being passed to the function. The value
within print() is called argument . Quotes within parentheses marks where the string
begins and ends ; they are not part of the string value.

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The input() function

This function is used to take the input from the user . Whatever the user enter as input,
input() function convert it into a string . if you enter an integer value still input()
function convert it into a string . The programmer is needed to convert it into an integer
in your code using typecasting.
Myname = input(“Enter your name”)

Reading multiple values using input()

Programmer often want as user to enter multiple values in one line . In Python user
can take multiple values or inputs in one line by using split() method . It breaks the
given input by the specified separator. If separator is not provided then any white
space is a separator. Generally, user use a split() method to split a Python string but
one can used it in taking multiple input.

Example:
>>> x, y,z = input ("Enter three values").split()
Enter three values 2 3 4

>>> x
'2'
>>> y
'3'
>>> z
'4'

The len() Function

In Python, the len() function is used to determine the length of an object, such as a
string, list, tuple, or any other iterable. It returns the number of elements or characters
present in the object. Here's an explanation of the len() function with an example:

text = "Hello, World!"

length = len(text)
print(length) # Output: 13

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The str() , int() and float Functions :

The str(), int(), and float() functions in Python are used to convert values between
different data types. Here's an explanation of each function with examples:

str() Function:
The str() function is used to convert a value to a string data type. It takes any valid
Python object as an argument and returns a string representation of that object. Here's
an example:
number = 10
number_str = str(number)
print(number_str) # Output: "10"

str() function can be used convert integer or floating numbers into string data type.

int() Function:
The int() function is used to convert a value to an integer data type. It can convert a
string or a float to an integer by truncating any decimal places. Here are some
examples:
number_str = "20"
number_int = int(number_str)
print(number_int) # Output: 20

float_num = 3.14
float_int = int(float_num)
print(float_int) # Output: 3

In the first example, the int() function converts the string "20" to an integer value 20.
In the second example, the int() function converts the float value 3.14 to an integer by
truncating the decimal places, resulting in the value 3.

float() Function:
The float() function is used to convert a value to a floating-point data type. It can
convert a string or an integer to a float. Here's an example:

number_str = "3.14"
number_float = float(number_str)
print(number_float) # Output: 3.14

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integer_num = 10
integer_float = float(integer_num)
print(integer_float) # Output: 10.0

In the first example, the float() function converts the string "3.14" to a floating-point
value 3.14. In the second example, the float() function converts the integer value 10 to
a float value 10.0.

These functions are useful when you need to convert values between different data
types in Python. They allow you to perform operations and manipulate values in the
desired format.

Operators and operands

• Operators are special symbols that represent computa琀椀ons like addi琀椀on and
mul琀椀plica琀椀on. The values the operator is applied to are called operands.
• The operators +, -, *, /, and ** perform addi琀椀on, subtrac琀椀on, mul琀椀plica琀椀on,
division, and exponen琀椀a琀椀on, as in the following examples:

Table: Operators and Examples

Operator Operation Example Evaluates to
** Exponent 5**3 125
% Modulus/Remainder 33%7 5
// Integer Division/Floored quotient 33//5 6
/ Division 23/7 3.2857142857142856
* Multiplication 7*8 56
- Subtraction 8–5 3
+ Addition 7+ 3 10

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Order of opera琀椀ons
• When more than one operator appears in an expression, the order of
evalua琀椀on depends on the rules of precedence.
PEMDAS order of opera琀椀on is followed in Python:
• Parentheses have the highest precedence and can be used to force an
expression to evaluate in the order you want.
• Exponen琀椀a琀椀on has the next highest precedence,
• Mul琀椀plica琀椀on and Division have the same precedence, which is higher than
• Addi琀椀on and Subtrac琀椀on, which also have the same precedence.
• Operators with the same precedence are evaluated from le昀琀 to right.

Following examples illustrates the evalua琀椀on of expressions by Python interpreter.

In each case the programmer must enter the expression, python interpreter
evaluates the expression to a single value .
>>> 5+4*3
17
>>> (4+5)*3
27
>>> 12345678*45678
563925879684
>>> 3**5
243
>>> 22//7
3
>>> 22/7
3.142857142857143
>>> 27%5
2
>>>3 + 3
6
>>> (5-2)*((8+4)/(5-2))
12.0

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Python interpreter evaluates parts of the expression as per the PEMDAS rule un琀椀l
it becomes a single value as illustrated below:
(5-2)*((8+4)/(5-2))
3 * ((8+4)/(5-2))
3*(12/(5-2))
3*(12/3)
3*4.0
12.0
Note: If you type invalid expressions, python interpreter will not be able to
understand it and will display a SyntaxError message as illustrated below:

Python Character Set :

The set of valid characters recognized by Python like le琀琀er, digit or any other
symbol. The latest version of Python recognizes Unicode character set. Python
supports the following character set:
• Letters : A-Z ,a-z
• Digits :0-9
• Special Symbols : space +-/*\**()[]{}//=!= == <> ,”””,;:%!#?$&^=@_
• White Spaces : Blank Space, tabs(->), Carriage return , new line , form feed
• Other Characters : All other 256 ACII and Unicode characters

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Python Tokens:
A token (lexical unit) is the smallest element of Python script that is meaningful to
the interpreter. Python has following categories of tokens: Iden琀椀昀椀ers, Keywords,
Literals , operators and delimiters.
Iden琀椀昀椀ers: Iden琀椀昀椀ers are names that you give to a variable, class or Func琀椀on.
There are certain rules for naming iden琀椀昀椀ers similar to the variable declara琀椀on
rules, such as : No Special character except_ , Keywords are not used as iden琀椀昀椀ers
, the 昀椀rst character of an iden琀椀昀椀er should be _ underscore or a character , but a
number is not valid for iden琀椀昀椀ers and iden琀椀昀椀ers are case sensi琀椀ve .

In the above example, we have used iden琀椀昀椀ers like my_variable, counter,

calculate_area, MyClass, and math.

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Literals: A 昀椀xed numeric or non-numeric value is called a literal. Literals may be

string, numbers (int, long, 昀氀oat and complex), Boolean (True or False), NONE and
Operators.
1. Numeric literals: Numeric literals represent numeric values such as
integers, 昀氀oa琀椀ng-point numbers, and complex numbers.
Examples: x = 10, y = 3.14, z = 2 + 3j
2. String literals: String literals represent sequences of characters enclosed
in either single quotes (') or double quotes (").
Examples: name = 'John', sage = "Hello, world!“
3. Boolean literals: Boolean literals represent the truth values True and False.
Examples: is_valid = True
4. None literal: The None literal represents the absence of a value or a null
value. It is o昀琀en used to indicate the absence of a meaningful result or as an
ini琀椀al value for variables.
Example: result = None
4. Operator Literals : Operator literals include arithme琀椀c operators,
comparison operators, assignment operators, logical operators, and more.
Examples: +,-,/,//,%,*,**, <,>,!=,==,and,or,not,etc.

Operators : A Symbol or a word that performs some kind of opera琀椀on on given

values and returns the result. There are 7 types of operators available for Python:
Arithme琀椀c Operator ,Assignment Operator, Comparison Operator, Logical Operator
, Bitwise Operator , Iden琀椀ty Operator and Membership Operator .
1. Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, %, **, //
2. Assignment operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, **=, //=
3. Comparison operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=
4. Logical operators: and, or, not
5. Bitwise operators: &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>
6. Membership operators: in, not in
7. Identity operators: is, is not

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Delimiters: Delimiters are the symbols which can be used as separators of values or
to enclose some values.
Examples : Comma (,),Colon (:),Parentheses (( and )),Square brackets ([ and
]),Curly braces ({ and }),Quota琀椀on marks (' and ") and Backslash (\)
Note : Comments and # symbol used to insert a comment is not a token.
Keywords: The reserved words of Python which have a special 昀椀xed meaning for
the interpreter are called keywords. No keyword can be used as an iden琀椀昀椀er or
variable names. There are 35 keywords in python as listed below:
Keyword Description
and Logical and operator
as Alias
assert Used for debugging
async Used to make a function asynchronous by adding the async keyword before the
function’s regular definition
await Used in asynchronous functions to specify a point in the function where control is
given back to the event loop for other functions to run. You can use it by placing
the await keyword in front of a call to any async function
break To break out of a loop
class To define a class
continue For skipping the statements and conitinuing the next iteration
def For defining user defined functions
del To delete an object
elif Conditional statement, same as else if
else Conditional statement
except Used in exception handling
False Boolean Value
finally Used in exception handling , to execute a block of code no matter whether
exception is there or not
for Used to create for loop – iterative statement
from Used to import specific parts of a module
global Used to declare global variable
if Conditional /decision making statement
import Used to import a module or library
in Used to check if a value if present in list, tuple, dictionaries , sets ,etc.
is To check if two variables are equal
lambda Used for defining an anonymous function
None Used to represent a null value
nonlocal To declare a non-local variable

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not A logical operator

or A logical operator
pass A null statement , a statement that will do nothing
raise To raise an exception
return To exit a function and return a value
True Boolean Value
try Used in exception handling
while For creating a while iterative loop
with Used to simplify exception handling
yield To end a function , returns a generator

Following code segment can be used to obtain the list of python keywords :
import keyword
# Get the list of keywords
print([Link])
print("\n Total Number of Keywords: ",len([Link]))

# Output :
['False', 'None', 'True', '__peg_parser__', 'and', 'as', 'assert', 'async', 'await', 'break', 'class',
'con琀椀nue', 'def', 'del', 'elif', 'else', 'except', '昀椀nally', 'for', 'from', 'global', 'if', 'import', 'in', 'is',
'lambda', 'nonlocal', 'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while', 'with', 'yield']
Total Number of Keywords: 36

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Simple Python Programs

1. To perform basic calcula琀椀ons
# Sample numbers
num1 = int(input("Enter 昀椀rst number"))
num2 = int(input("Enter second number"))

# Calculate the sum of two numbers

sum_result = num1 + num2
print("Sum:", sum_result)

# Calculate the product of two numbers

product_result = num1 * num2
print("Product:", product_result)

# Calculate the di昀昀erence of two numbers

di昀昀erence_result = num1 - num2
print("Di昀昀erence:", di昀昀erence_result)

# Calculate the division of two numbers

division_result = num1 / num2
print("Division:", division_result)

# Calculate the integer division of two numbers

integer_division_result = num1 // num2
print("Integer Division:", integer_division_result)

# Calculate the modulo division of two numbers

modulo_division_result = num1 % num2
print("Modulo Division:", modulo_division_result)

# output
Enter 昀椀rst number 3
Enter second number 2
Sum: 5
Product: 6

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Di昀昀erence: 1
Division: 1.5
Integer Division: 1
Modulo Division: 1

2. To 昀椀nd the area of a circle

import math
# Take input for the radius of the circle
radius = 昀氀oat(input("Enter the radius of the circle: "))
# Calculate the area of the circle
area = [Link] * radius**2
# Display the result
print("The area of the circle is:", area)

# output
Enter the radius of the circle: 2.5
The area of the circle is: 19.634954084936208
3. To 昀椀nd the simple interest
# Take input for principal amount, rate, and 琀椀me
principal = 昀氀oat(input("Enter the principal amount: "))
rate = 昀氀oat(input("Enter the interest rate: "))
琀椀me = 昀氀oat(input("Enter the 琀椀me period (in years): "))

# Calculate the simple interest

simple_interest = (principal * rate * 琀椀me) / 100

# Display the result

print("The simple interest is:", simple_interest)

# Output
Enter the principal amount: 10000
Enter the interest rate: 2.5
Enter the 琀椀me period (in years): 3
The simple interest is: 750.0
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Ques琀椀ons for Prac琀椀ce:

1. What is Python ? Who created Python?

2. What are the features of Python which makes it more popular?
3. List out the different jobs available for Python programmer.
4. What is the role of programmer? Lis two skills required to become good
programmer.
5. Discuss, Why Should you learn to write Programs?
6. What is Zen of Python?
7. Discuss, with snapshots how to install latest version of IDLE Python and Jupyter
Python.
8. Illustrate with examples how to interact with IDLE Python.
9. Explain how mathematical expressions can be executed in interactive shell.
[Link] with example how write and execute programs in Jupyter Editor.
[Link] the different components of Jupyter Editor.
[Link] Program. Differentiate between Compiler and Interpreter. Give
Examples.
[Link] are Python words and sentences? Explain with an example for each.
[Link] the following list of items into variables, values, operators, strings, and
keywords:
List of items: *, + , - , **, < ,> , 'hello' , ‘ I am ok . How are you’, -88.8, /, 5, and, is
, not , while , for, async, x, si, p , time , rate , velocity , speed, acc , % ,&, ! , ||
[Link] are expressions? Illustrate the different types of expressions with
examples.
16. What are data types? Classify the different data types in python with
examples.
[Link] are Python Variables? What rules one should follow to name the
variables.
[Link] 5 examples for valid and invalid variables.
[Link] how to store values in a variable.
[Link] a sample program and dissect the program with explanation.
[Link] are comments? What are the advantages of Comments? Explain the
different ways of writing comments.
[Link] examples for single and multiline comments.
[Link] the working and usage of print() function with examples.

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[Link] the working and usage of input() function with examples.

[Link] example to read multiple values using input().
[Link] operands and operators. Discuss PEMDAS rules with examples.
[Link] are keywords? How many keywords are there in current version of
Python?
[Link] a program to display all keywords in the current version of Python.
[Link] are Python comments? Explain their importance with programming
examples.
[Link] print () , input() and split() functions with example.
[Link] a program for the following:
1. To read and print a single value in a single line
2. To read and print multiple values in a single line
32. Explain the following different types of errors: Syntax errors, Semantic errors
and Logic Errors.
[Link] the following functions with example: len() , str() , int() , float()
[Link] the out put and justify your answer: (i) -11%9 (ii) 7.7//7 (iii) (200 –
70)*10/5 (iv) not “False” (v) 5*|**2
[Link] the rules to describe a variable in Python. Demonstrate at least three
different types of variables uses with an example program.
[Link] the following :
1. Skills necessary for a programmer
2. Interactive Mode
3. Short circuit evaluation of expression
4. Modulus operator.
[Link] three types of errors encountered in python program.
[Link] the following with example : Values and Types , Variables , Expressions ,
Keywords , Statements , Operators and Operands, Order of Operations ,
Modulus Operators , String operations and Comments.
[Link] three functions can be used to get the integer, floating-point number, or
string version of a value?

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Programs for Prac琀椀ce:

Write and execute python programs for the following :
1. To prompt a user for their name and then welcomes them.
2. To prompt a user for days and rate per day to compute gross salary.
3. To read the following input and display :
a. Name :
b. USN:
c. Roll No:
d. Mobile No:
e. E-Mail Id:
f. Percentage of Marks:
4. To find the simple interest for a given value of P, T and R. Program should
take input from the user.
5. To find the compound interest.
6. To read two integers and find the sum, diff, mult and div.
7. To Convert given Celsius to Fahrenheit temperature.
8. To print ascii value of a character.
9. To display all the keywords.
[Link] print the following string in a specific format :”"Twinkle, twinkle, little
star, How I wonder what you are! Up above the world so high, Like a
diamond in the sky. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you
are" .

Output :
Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.
Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are

[Link] get a python version.

[Link] display the current date and time
[Link] accept the radius of a circle from the user and compute the area.
[Link] print the calendar of a given month and year.
[Link] check whether a file exists .
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[Link] determine if a Python shell is executing in 32 bit or 64 bit mode on OS.

[Link] get OS name , platform and release information .
[Link] locate Python site packages.
[Link] call an external command in python.
[Link] get path and name of the file that is currently executing.
[Link] parse a string to float or integer.
[Link] list all files in a directory in Python.
[Link] print without newline or space.
[Link] determine profiling of Python programs.
[Link] print to stderr.
[Link] access environment variables.
[Link] get the current username.
[Link] find the local IP addresses using Pythons stdlib.
[Link] get execution time for a python method.
[Link] convert height in meters to centimeters.
[Link] Convert all units of time to seconds
[Link] convert the distance in feet to inches , yards and miles.
[Link] calculate body mass index.
[Link] variables x = 15 and y = 30 , write a Python program to print
“15+30=45”.
[Link] get the identity of the object
[Link] check whether a string is numeric.
[Link] get the system time .
[Link] clear the screen or terminal
[Link] calculate the time runs (difference between start and current time ) of a
program.
[Link] input integer if not generate error.

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1.2 Flow Control

Syllabus: Boolean Values, Comparison Operators, Boolean Operators, Mixing Boolean and
Comparison Operators, Elements of Flow Control, Program Execution, Flow Control Statements,
Importing Modules, Ending a Program Early with [Link]().

Boolean Values: A Boolean value is either true or false. It is named a昀琀er the Bri琀椀sh
mathema琀椀cian, George Boole, who 昀椀rst formulated Boolean algebra. In Python the
two Boolean Values are True and False and the Python type is bool. Enter the
following into the Python shell and observe the output.
type(True) # output : bool
type(False) # output : bool
type(true) # output: Name Error : name “ true” is not defined
type(false) # output: Name Error : name “ false” is not defined
context = True
print(context) #output : True

A Boolean expression is an expression that evaluated to produce a result which is

a Boolean value. For example, the operator ‘==’ tests if two values are equal. It
produces (or yields) a Boolean value:

5 == (1+4) # output : True

5 == 6 # output: False

In the 昀椀rst statement the two operands evaluate to equal values, so the expression
evaluates to True; in the second statement, 5 is not equal to 6 we get False.
P = “hel”
P + “lo” == “hello” # output: True

In the above example since the concatenated value P + “lo” is “hello” the
expression evaluates to True .

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Comparison Operators
Comparison operators compare two values and evaluate down to a single Boolean
value. The == operator is one of six common comparison operators which all
produce a bool result. Table lists all the comparison operators:
Operator Meaning
== Equal to
!= Not Equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Les than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to

Comparison operators evaluate to True or False depending on the values we

provide to them. Consider following expressions:
55 == 55 # output: True
55 == 79 # output: False
7!=10 # output : True
7!=7 #output : False
True == True # output: True
True != False # output: True
Based on the above observa琀椀ons it is clear that == (equal) evaluates to True when
the value on both sides are the same , and != (not equal to ) evaluates to True when
the two values are di昀昀erent . T Equal to and Not equal to operators can work with
values of any data type.
The other comparison operators like <, >, <= and >= work properly only with
integer and 昀氀oa琀椀ng-point values.
12< 13 # output: True
55.55 > 66.75 # output : False
“tag”< = 2 # output : Type error : ‘<’ is not supported between instances of ‘str’
and ‘int’.
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Di昀昀erence between == and = Operator

= ==
It is an assignment operator It is a comparison operator
It is used for assigning the value to It is used for comparing two values.
a variable It returns 1 if both the value is equal
otherwise returns 0
Constant term cannot be place on Constant term can be placed in the left-
left hand side hand side.
Example: Example: 1 ==1 is valid and return 1
1= x; is invalid

Boolean Operators:
Boolean operators evaluate the expression to Boolean Values True/False. Python
supports three Boolean operators and, or & not. Based on the number of operands
required they can be classi昀椀ed into Binary Boolean operators and Unary Boolean
Operators.
Binary Boolean operators : and & or
Since both and & or operators takes two operands, they are considered as binary
operators. The and operator returns true value if both operands are true and return
false otherwise. While or operator returns false when both operands are false and
returns true otherwise.
True and True # output : True
True and False # output : False
False and True # output : False
False and False # output :False

True or True # output : True

True or False # output : True
False or True # output : True
False or False # output :False

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Following truth tables illustrates all possible logical combina琀椀ons and values for OR
and AND Boolean binary operators.

Op1 Op2 Op1 and Op2 Op1 Op2 Op1 or Op2

True False False True False True
False True False False True True
False False False False False False
True True True True True True

Not operator: It is a unary operator and evaluates the expression to opposite value
true or false as illustrated below :
not True # output : False
not False # output : True
not not not not True # output : True

Truth Table for not operator:

op not op
True False
False True

Examples for Mixing Boolean and Comparison Operators: Boolean operators and
comparison operators can be used in combina琀椀on as illustrated below :
x = 10
y = 20
x<y and x>y # output : False
(x<y) and (x!=y) or (x*2) and (x<20 or y<20) # output : True
2+2 == 4 and not 2+2 == 5 and 2*2 == 2+2 #output : True
5*7 +8 == 7 or not 5+7 ==10 and 5*4 ==20 #output : True

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Elements of Flow Control:

Flow control statements often starts with condition followed by a block of code
called clause. The two elements of Flow Control are discussed below:

a) Conditions:
Conditions are Boolean expressions with the boolean values True or False. Flow
control statements decides what to do based on the condition whether it is true or
false.

b) Blocks of Code /Clause:

The set of more than one statements grouped with same indentation so that they are
syntactically equivalent to a single statement is known as Block or Compound
Statement. One can tell when a block begins, and ends based on indentation of the
statements. Following are three rules for blocks:
1. Blocks begin when the indentation increases
2. Blocks can have nested blocks
3. Blocks end when the indentation decreases to zero

Example 1:
x = int(input(“Enter a number: “)) # Block
if x>=10: # Condition
x = x + 25 # Block belonging to if
y=x
print(x,y)
print(“Next statement”) # Next Block

Example 2: Nested Blocks

N = int(input(“Enter a number of your choice”))

if n > 0:
print(“Positive”) # Block of outer if
if n%2==0:
print(“Multiple of Two”) # Block of Inner if
print("End”)

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Flow Control statements

Flow control statements in Python are used to control the order of execution and
make decisions based on certain conditions. The main flow control statements in
Python include:
Conditional Control Statements:
• if statement: Executes a block of code if a specified condition is true.
• elif statement: Allows you to check additional conditions if the previous if or
elif conditions are false.
• else statement: Executes a block of code if none of the previous conditions
are true.

Looping Statements:
• for loop: Iterates over a sequence (such as a list, tuple, string, or range) and
executes a block of code for each item in the sequence.
• while loop: Repeats a block of code as long as a specified condition is true.

Loop Control Statements:

• break statement: Terminates the innermost loop and continues with the next
statement after the loop.
• continue statement: Skips the rest of the current iteration and moves to the
next iteration of the loop.
• pass statement: Acts as a placeholder, allowing you to create empty code
blocks without causing syntax errors.
Exception Handling Statements:
• try, except, finally statements: Used to catch and handle exceptions that
occur during program execution.
• try statement: Defines a block of code where exceptions might occur.
• except statement: Specifies the code to execute if a specific exception occurs
within the try block.
• finally statement: Defines a block of code that will be executed regardless of
whether an exception occurred or not.

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Types of Condition Control Statements

The different two-way selection statements supported by Python language are:

1. if statement
2. if- else statement
3. Nested if else statement
4. if – elif ladder

1. if statement:
It is basically a two-way decision statement and it is used in conjunction
with an expression. It is used to execute a set of statements if the condition
is true. If the condition is false it skips executing those set of statements.
The syntax and flow chart of if statement is as illustrated below:

Entry

False
Is Condition?

True

S1
S2
S3
---
Sn

Sn+1

Fig: Syntax and flow diagram for if statement

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Example1: Python program to find the largest number using if statement.

Example2: Python Program to determine whether a person is eligible to vote

using if.

2. If else statement:

It is an extension of if statement. It is used to execute any one set of two set of

statements at a time. If condition is true it executes one set of statements
otherwise it executes another set of statements. The syntax and flow diagram of
if else is as shown in the figure below. As illustrated in the figure if the condition
is true the set of statements {S11,S12,------S1n} gets executed else if the
condition is false the set of statements {S21,S22,S23------S2n} gets executed.

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True False
Is
Condition?

True Block False Block

Statements Statements: S21,
:S11,S12,S13,S14-- S22, S23,S24--------
---------S1n ---S2n

Statement x

Fig: Syntax and flow diagram for if else statement

Example: Program to check whether a given number is even or odd using if else.

3. Nested if else:

When a series of decisions are involved, we may have to use more than one if else
statement in nested form. The nested if else statements are multi decision statements
which consist of if else control statement within another if or else section. The syntax
and flow diagram for nested if else is as shown below:
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False
True
Cond1

True False
False True
Cond3 Cond2

S3 S4 S2 S1

Statement x
Fig : Syntax and flow diagram for nested if else statement

Example:

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4. if – elif ladder:
Cascaded if elif else is a multipath decision statements which consist of chain of
if elseif where in the nesting take place only in else block. As soon as one of the
conditions controlling the ‘if’ is true , then statement /statements associated with
that ‘if’ are executed and the rest of the ladder is bypassed. If condition is false
then it checks the first elif condition , if it is found true then first elif is executed.
However, if none of the elif ladder is correct then the final else statement will be
executed and control flows from top to down.
The syntax and flow diagram for cascaded if else is as shown in figure.

Syntax
T F
if C1: C1
S1 F
elif C2: T C2
S2 S1
elif C3: S2
T F
S3 C3
elif C4:
S3
S4
T
------- Cn
elif Cn:
F
Sn
else: Sn
default
default stmnt statement

Statement x;

Statement x

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Example:

3. Iteration or looping:
The statement which are used to repeat a set of statements repeatedly for a given
number of times or until a given condition is satisfied is called as looping
constructs or looping statements. The set or block of statements used for looping
is called loop.
Types of Looping statements:
Depending on the position of the control statement in the loop the looping
statements are classified into the following two types:
1. Entry controlled Loop
2. Exit Controlled Loop

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1. Entry Controlled Loop: In the entry-controlled loop the control conditions

are tested before the start of the loop execution. If the conditions are not satisfied,
then the body of the loop will not be executed. It is also known as pretest loop or
top test loop. The flow chart for the entry controlled loop is as illustrated in fig .

FALSE
Is
Condi琀椀on?

TRUE

Body of the
Loop

Fig: Flow diagram for Entry Controlled Loop

[Link] Controlled Loop: In the exit controlled loop the test is performed at the
end of the body of the loop and therefore the body is executed unconditionally
for the first time. It is also known as posttest loop. Here the body of the loop will
get executed at least once before [Link] flow chart for the exit controlled
loop is as illustrated in fig .

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Body of the
Loop

TRUE
Is
Condi琀椀on?

FALSE

Fig: Flow diagram for Exit Controlled Loop

The looping includes the following four steps:

1. Initialization of a condition variable

2. Testing for a specified value of the condition variable for execution of
the loop.
3. Execution of the statements in the loop
4. Updating (Incrementing or Decrementing) the condition variable

Types of Loops Supported in Python: The Python Language supports

the following two looping operations:
1. The while statement
2. The for statement

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The while statement: It is an entry controlled loop statement. In case of while

loop the initialization, testing the condition and incrementation or updation is
done in separate statements. First initialization of the loop counter is
[Link] the condition is checked. If the condition evaluates to be true
then the control enters the body of the loop and executes the statements in the
body.

1. The syntax or basic format of the while statement is as shown in figure

below:

ini琀椀aliza琀椀on

Syntax of While Loop Is FALSE

Condi琀椀on?
Ini琀椀aliza琀椀on
while Condi琀椀on:
S1 TRUE
S2 S1
S3 S2
------ S3
Sn ------
*Incrementa琀椀on Sn
else : # op琀椀onal
Body of else
Next Statement; Incrementa琀椀on

*Incrementa琀椀on or decrementa琀椀on or Next Statement

upda琀椀on

Fig: Flow diagram for Exit Controlled Loop

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While statement in Python executes a block of code repeatedly as long as the

test/control condi琀椀on of the loop is true. The control condi琀椀on of the while loop is
executed before any statement in the body of the loop is executed . If the condi琀椀on
is true, the body of the loop is executed. Again, the control condi琀椀on of the loop is
tested, and the loo con琀椀nue as long as the condi琀椀on remains true. When the test
outcome of this condi琀椀on remains true. When the test outcome of this condi琀椀on
becomes false, the loop is not entered again and the control is transferred to the
statement immediately following the body of the loop as shown in the 昀氀ow
diagram.

Example: Program to find the sum of n natural numbers using while loop.

For loop:

The for loop is another entry-controlled loop. It is used to execute the set of
statements repeatedly over a range of values or a sequence. With every iteration of
the loop, the control variable checks whether each of the values in the range has been
traversed or not. When all the items in the range are traversed the control is then
transferred to the statement immediately following for loop.

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Syntax of for loop :

Flow Chart:

Example: Python Program to find the sum of natural numbers upto n.

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range ( ) function: The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting

from 0 to a specified number ,incrementing each time by 1.
Syntax :
range(start,step,stop)
Example:

Table: range() examples

Command Output
range(10) [ 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]
range(1,11) [ 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
range(0,30,5) [0,5,10,15,20,25]
range(0,-9,-1) [0,-1,-2,-3,-4,-5,-6,-7,-8

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The argument of range() function must be integers. The step parameter can be any
positive or negative integer other than zero.

Infinite Loop: A loop becomes in昀椀nite loop if a condi琀椀on never becomes FALSE.
You must use cau琀椀on when using while loops because of the possibility that this
condi琀椀on never resolves to a FALSE value. This results in a loop that never ends.
Such a loop is called an in昀椀nite loop.
An in昀椀nite loop might be useful in client/server programming where the server
needs to run con琀椀nuously so that client programs can communicate with it as and
when required.

Nested Loops:
Python programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop.

Syntax for nested for loop:

for iterating_var in sequence:

for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)

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Example:

Syntax for nested while loop:

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in Python programming language is as follows –
while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)
A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other type of loop.
For example a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa. The following program uses a
nested for loop to find the prime numbers from 2 to 20−

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Jump statements:
You might face a situa琀椀on in which you need to exit a loop completely when an
external condi琀椀on is triggered or there may also be a situa琀椀on when you want to
skip a part of the loop and start next execu琀椀on.
Python provides break and con琀椀nue statements to handle such situa琀椀ons and to
have good control on your loop.
The break statement in Python terminates the current loop and resumes
execu琀椀on at the next statement, just like the tradi琀椀onal break found in C.
The most common use for break is when some external condi琀椀on is triggered
requiring a hasty exit from a loop. The break statement can be used in
both while and for loops.

The con琀椀nue statement in Python returns the control to the beginning of the while
loop. The con琀椀nue statement rejects all the remaining statements in the current
itera琀椀on of the loop and moves the control back to the top of the loop.

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The con琀椀nue statement can be used in both while and for loops.
Example:

else statement used with loops :

Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statements.

• If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed when
the loop has exhausted iterating the list.
• If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed
when the condition becomes false.

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Example :
The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for
statement that searches for prime numbers from 10 through 20.

Similar way you can use else statement with while loop.

The Pass Statement :

The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is required syntac琀椀cally but
you do not want any command or code to [Link] pass statement is
a null opera琀椀on; nothing happens when it executes. The pass is also useful in places
where your code will eventually go, but has not been wri琀琀en yet (e.g., in stubs for
example):

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Importing Modules
Python func琀椀on de昀椀ni琀椀on can, usefully, be stored in one or more separate 昀椀les for
easier maintenance and to allow them to beused in several programs without
copying the de昀椀ni琀椀ons into each one. Each 昀椀le storing func琀椀on de昀椀ni琀椀ons is called
a “module” and the module name is the 昀椀le name with “.py” extension.

Example:
Func琀椀ons stored in the module are made available to a program using the Python
import keyword followed by the module name. Although not essen琀椀al, it is
customary to put any import statements at the beginning of the program.
Imported func琀椀ons can be called using their name dot -su昀케xed a昀琀er the module
name. For example, a “f1()” func琀椀on from an imported module named
“userde昀椀ned” can be called with userde昀椀ned.f1() .
Design a new Python module called userde昀椀ned by de昀椀ning all func琀椀ons as
illustrated below. Save the 昀椀le as userde昀椀[Link] and run the 昀椀le.

userde昀椀[Link]

Start a new script with name [Link] (/ipynb). Next call each func琀椀on
with and without arguments as per the requirements. Run the program and get the
output as illustrated below:

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Impor琀椀ng Modules:

Impor琀椀ng the sys and keyword modules :

Python includes “sys” and “keyword” modules that are useful for interroga琀椀ng the
Python system itself. The keyword module contains a list of all Python keywords in
its kwlist a琀琀ribute and provides as iskeyword () method if you want to rest a word.

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Performing Mathema琀椀cs

Random

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Ending a Program Early with [Link] ()

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Ques琀椀ons for Prac琀椀ce:

[Link] is Flow Chart ? Give the meaning of different flow chart
symbols.
[Link] a Flow chart and Python program for the following:
a. To find the average of two numbers.
b. To find the simple interest given the value of P,T and R
c. To find the maximum of two numbers
d. To find the sum of first 50 natural numbers
e. To find the factorial of a given number N.
[Link] == and = operator.
[Link] are operators? Explain the following Operators with
example:
a. Binary Boolean Operators: and, or & not
[Link] is Flow Control? Explain the different Elements of Flow
Control?
[Link] Block and explain what nested blocks with example are.
[Link] condition control statement. Explain the different types of
Condition Control Statement.
[Link] with flow chart and programming example , the following
condition control statements :
a. if
b. if – else
c. nested if else
d. if – elif ladder
[Link] is iteration or looping ? Describe the different types of
looping statements.
[Link] with syntax , flow chart and programming example the
following looping operations.
a. While loop
b. For loop

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[Link] the working of range() function with programming

example.
[Link] the output of the following :
a. range(10)
b. range(1,11)
c. range(0,30,5)
d. range(0,-9,-1)
[Link] is infinite loop ? Explain with example.
[Link] are nested Loops ? Explain with examples.
[Link] the following with examples :
a. break
b. continue
c. else statement with loop
d. pass
[Link] are Python Modules ? Explain with examples how to import
Python Modules .
[Link] is the difference between break and continue statements.
[Link] is the purpose of else in loop?
[Link] logical expressions for the following :
a. Either A is greater than B or A is less than C
b. Name is Snehith and age is between 18 and 35.
c. Place is either Mysore or Bengaluru but not “Dharwad”.
[Link] the following while loop into for loop :
x =10
while (x<20):
print(x+10)
x+=2
[Link] while and for loop . Write a program to generate
Fibonacci series upto the given limit by defining FIBONACCI(n)
function.

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[Link] the advantage of continue statement. Write a program

to compute only even numbers sum within the given natural
number using continue statement.
[Link] the use of break and continue keywords in looping
structures using a snippet code.
[Link] syntax explain the finite and infinite looping constructs in
python. What is the break and continue statements .[ VTU June
/July 2019]

Programming Ques琀椀ons for Prac琀椀ce:

[Link] a logical expressions to represent each of the following
conditions :
a. Mark is greater than or equal to 100 but less than 70
b. Num is between 0 and 5 but not equal to 2
c. Answer is either ‘N’ or ‘n’
d. Age is greater than or equal to 18 and gender is male
e. City is either ‘Kolkata’ or ‘Mumbai’
[Link] a program to check if the number of positive or negative and
display an appropriate message.
[Link] a program to convert temperature in Fahrenheit to Celsius.
[Link] a program to display even numbers between 10 and 20.
[Link] a program to perform all the mathematical operations of
calculator.
[Link] a program to accept a number and display the factorial of
that number.
[Link] a program to convert binary number to decimal number.
[Link] a program to find the sum of the digits of a number.
[Link] a program to display prime number between 30.

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[Link] a program to find the best of two test average marks out of
three tests marks accepted from the user.
[Link] a program to find the largest of three numbers . [ VTU June
/July 2019]
[Link] a program to check whether the given year is leap or not. [
VTU June /July 2019]
[Link] a program to generate and print prime number between 2
to 50.
[Link] a program to find those numbers which are divisible by 7
and multiple of 5 , between 1000 and 3000.
[Link] a program to guess a number between 1 to 10.
[Link] a program that accepts a word from the user and reverse it.
[Link] a program to count the number of even and odd numbers
from a series of numbers.
[Link] a program that prints all the numbers from 0 to 10 except
3, 7 and 10.
[Link] a program to generate Fibonacci series between 0 and 50.
[Link] a program which iterates the integers from 1 to 50. For
multiple of three print “Fizz” instead of the numbers and fro the
multiples of five print “Buzz” . For numbers which are multiples of
both three and five print “FizzBuzz”.
[Link] a program that accepts a string and calculate the number
of digits and letters.
[Link] a program to check the validity of password input by users.
[Link] a program to find the numbers between 100 and 400
where each digit of a number is an even number . The numbers
obtained should be printed in a comma-separated sequence.
[Link] a program to print alphabet patterns ‘A’ ,D, ‘E’, ‘G’,’L’, ‘T’
and ‘S’ with * symbol.

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[Link] a python program to create the multiplication table (from 1

to 20) of a number.
[Link] a program to print the following patterns :
*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
* * * *
* * *
* *
*

1
22
333
4444
55555
666666
7777777
88888888
999999999

*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *

1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

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A
B B
C CC
D DDD
E EEEE

* * * * *
* * * *
* * *
* *
*

1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1

*
* * *
* * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * * * * * *

1
2 3 2
3 4 5 4 3
4 5 6 7 6 5 4
5 6 7 8 9 8 7 6 5

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* * * * * * * * *
* * * * * * *
* * * * *
* * *
*

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

1
2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9 10

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1.3 Func琀椀ons
1.3.1 Introduc琀椀on
A func琀椀on is a group (or block ) of statements that perform a speci昀椀c task .
Func琀椀ons run only when it is called. One can pass data into the func琀椀on in the form
of parameters. Func琀椀on can also return data as a result. Instead of wri琀椀ng a large
program as one long sequence of instruc琀椀ons , it can be wri琀琀en as several small
func琀椀on , each performing a speci昀椀c part of the task . They cons琀椀tute line of code(s)
that are executed sequen琀椀ally from top to bo琀琀om by Python interpreter. A python
func琀椀on is wri琀琀en once and is used / called as many 琀椀me as required . Func琀椀ons
are the most important building blocks for any applica琀椀on in Python and work on
the divide and conquer approach. Func琀椀ons can be conquered into the following
three types :
(i) User De昀椀ned
(ii) Built in
(iii) Modules

[Link] De昀椀ned Func琀椀ons:

In Python, user-de昀椀ned func琀椀ons are func琀椀ons that are created by the programmer
to perform speci昀椀c tasks. These func琀椀ons are de昀椀ned using the def keyword
followed by the func琀椀on name, parentheses for op琀椀onal parameters, and a colon
to start the func琀椀on block. The syntax for de昀椀ning and calling a func琀椀on is as
illustrated below :
Syntax for De昀椀ning a func琀椀on:
Func琀椀on is de昀椀ned using def keyword in Python.

def fun_name(comma_seprated_parameter_ list):

stmt_1
-------
stmt_n
return stmt

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Statements below def begin with four spaces. This is called indenta琀椀on. It is a
requirement of Python that the code following a colon must be indented. A
func琀椀on de昀椀ni琀椀on consists of the following components;
1. Keyword def marks the start of function header
2. A function name to uniquely identify it. Function naming follows the same
rules as rules of writing identifiers in Python.
3. Parameters (arguments) through which we pass values to a function . They
are optional.
4. A colon (: ) to mark the end of function header.
5. Optional documentation string (docstring) to describe what the function
does.
6. One or more valid Python statements that make up the function body.
Statements must have same indentation level (usually) 4 spaces)
7. An optional return statement to return a value from the function .

Example :
def cube(n):
ncube = n**3
return ncube

Syntax for calling a func琀椀on:

fun_name(parameter list)
Example: cube(3)

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Parameters and arguments

Parameters are temporary variable names within func琀椀ons. The argument can be
thought of as the value that is assigned to that temporary variable.
• 'n' here is the parameter for the func琀椀on 'cube'. This means that
anywhere we see 'n' within the func琀椀on will act as a placeholder un琀椀l
number is passed an argument.
• Here 3 is the argument.
• Parameters are used in func琀椀on de昀椀ni琀椀on and arguments are used in
func琀椀on call.
Working of func琀椀on

Example 1: Func琀椀on without parameters

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Example 2 : Func琀椀on with parameters but without returning values.

Example 3: Func琀椀on with parameters and return values

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Example 4: Function which return multiple values

The None-Value
In Python there is a value called None, which represents the absence of a value. None is the only
value of the None Type data type. (Other programming languages might call this value null, nil,
or unde昀椀ned.) Just like the Boolean True and False values, None must be typed with a capital N.

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Keyword Arguments and print()

Keyword arguments are iden琀椀昀椀ed by the keyword put before them in the func琀椀on
call. Keyword arguments are o昀琀en used for op琀椀onal parameters. For example, the
print( ) func琀椀on has the op琀椀onal parameters end and sep to specify what should be
printed at the end of its arguments and between its arguments (separa琀椀ng them),
respec琀椀vely. Following examples illustrates the behavior of print with end , without
end and with sep.

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1.3.6 Local and Global Scope

Parameters and variables that are assigned in a called func琀椀on are said to exist in
that func琀椀on’s local scope. Variables that are assigned outside all func琀椀ons are said
to exist in the global scope. A variable that exists in a local scope is called a local
variable, while a variable that exists in the global scope is called a global variable. A
variable must be one or the other; it cannot be both local and global. Following
example illustrates the di昀昀erence between local and global variable .

Local variable cannot be used in the global scope

Consider this program which will cause an error when you run it:

If you run this program the output will look like this

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The error happens because the x variable exists only in the local scope created
when fun1() is called. Once the program execu琀椀on returns from fun1(), that local
scope is destroyed, and there is no longer a variable named x. So when your
program tries to run print(x), Python gives you an error saying that x is not de昀椀ned.
This makes sense if you think about it; when the program execu琀椀on is in the global
scope, no local scopes exist, so there can’t be any local variables. This is why only
global variables can be used in the global scope.
Local Scopes Cannot Use Variables in Other Local Scopes
A new local scope is created whenever a func琀椀on is called, including when a
func琀椀on is called from another func琀椀on. Consider this program:

When the program starts the func1() is called and a local scope is created . The local
variable x is set to 10. Then fun2() is called and a second local scope is created .
Mul琀椀ple local scopes can exist at the same 琀椀me . In this new local scope , the local
variable y is set to 21 and a local variable x which is di昀昀erent from the one in fun1()’s
local scope is also created and set to 0. When fun2() returns the local scope for the
call to fun1() s琀椀ll exists here the x variable is set to 10. This is what the programs
prints.
The local variables in one func琀椀on are completely separate the local variable in
another func琀椀on.

Global Variable Can be read from a local scope :

Consider the following program :

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Since there is no parameter named x or any code that assigns x a value in the fun1()
func琀椀on , when x is used in fun1(), Python considers it a reference to the global
variable x. This is why 42 is printed when the previous program is run.

Local and Global Variables with the same Name :

One should avoid using local variables that have the same name as a global variable
or another local variable. Consider the following program :

When you run the program , it outputs the following :

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There are actually three di昀昀erent variables in this program, but confusingly they are
all named x.
A variable named x that exists in a local scope when fun1() is called.
A variable named x that exists in a local scope when fun2() is called
A variable named x that exists in the global scope
Since these three separate variables all have the same name, it can be confusing
to keep of which one is being used at any given 琀椀me . This is why you should
avoid using the same variable name in di昀昀erent scopes.

Global Statement
If you need to modify a global variable from within a func琀椀on , used the global
statement . If you have a line such as global x at the top of a func琀椀on , it tells
Python, In this func琀椀on, x refers to the global variable, so don’t create a local
variable with this name.” For example, type the following code and run

When you run this program the 昀椀nal print() call will output this :
Because x is declared global at the top of spam() , when x is set to 'spam' , this
assignment is done to the globally scoped x. No local x variable is created.
There are four rules to tell whether a variable is in a local scope or global scope:
1. If a variable is being used in the global scope (that is, outside of all func琀椀ons),
then it is always a global variable.
2. If there is a global statement for that variable in a func琀椀on, it is a global
variable.

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3. Otherwise, if the variable is used in an assignment statement in the func琀椀on, it

is a local variable.
4. But if the variable is not used in an assignment statement, it is a global variable.

Excep琀椀onal Handling
Right now, ge琀�ng an error, or excep琀椀on, in your Python program means the en琀椀re
program will crash. You don’t want this to happen in real-world programs. Instead,
you want the program to detect errors, handle them, and then con琀椀nue to run. For
example, consider the following program, which has a “divide-byzero” error. Open
a new 昀椀le editor window and enter the following code, saving it as [Link]:

We’ve de昀椀ned a func琀椀on called spam, given it a parameter, and then printed the value of that func琀椀on
with various parameters to see what happens. This is the output you get when you run the previous
code:

A ZeroDivisionError happens whenever you try to divide a number by zero. From the line number given
in the error message, you know that the return statement in spam() is causing an error.

Try and Except :

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Errors can be handled with try and except statements. The code that could poten琀椀ally have an error is
put in a try clause. The program execu琀椀on moves to the start of a following except clause if an error
happens. You can put the previous divide-by-zero code in a try clause and have an except clause contain
code to handle what happens when this error occurs.

When code in a try clause causes an error, the program execu琀椀on immediately moves to the code in the
except clause. A昀琀er running that code, the execu琀椀on con琀椀nues as normal. The output of the previous
program is as follows:

Note that any errors that occur in func琀椀on calls in a try block will also be caught. Consider the following
program, which instead has the spam() calls in the try block:

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When this program is run, the output looks like this:

The reason print(spam(1)) is never executed is because once the execu琀椀on jumps to the code in the
except clause, it does not return to the try clause. Instead, it just con琀椀nues moving down as normal.

ii. Built in func琀椀ons

Built in func琀椀ons are the prede昀椀ned func琀椀ons that are already available
in python. Func琀椀ons provide e昀케ciency and structure to a programming
language .python has many useful built in func琀椀ons to make
programming easier , faster and more powerful.
Some of the important buil琀椀n func琀椀ons are listed below:
abs() Returns the absolute value of a number

ascii() Returns a readable version of an object. Replaces none-ascii characters with escape character

bin() Returns the binary version of a number

bool() Returns the boolean value of the speci昀椀ed object

bytearray() Returns an array of bytes

bytes() Returns a bytes object

chr() Returns a character from the speci昀椀ed Unicode code.

classmethod() Converts a method into a class method

complex() Returns a complex number

dela琀琀r() Deletes the speci昀椀ed a琀琀ribute (property or method) from the speci昀椀ed object

dict() Returns a dic琀椀onary (Array)

dir() Returns a list of the speci昀椀ed object's proper琀椀es and methods

divmod() Returns the quo琀椀ent and the remainder when argument1 is divided by argument2

enumerate() Takes a collec琀椀on (e.g. a tuple) and returns it as an enumerate object

eval() Evaluates and executes an expression

昀椀lter() Use a 昀椀lter func琀椀on to exclude items in an iterable object

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昀氀oat() Returns a 昀氀oa琀椀ng point number

format() Formats a speci昀椀ed value

geta琀琀r() Returns the value of the speci昀椀ed a琀琀ribute (property or method)

globals() Returns the current global symbol table as a dic琀椀onary

hex() Converts a number into a hexadecimal value

id() Returns the id of an object

input() Allowing user input

int() Returns an integer number

isinstance() Returns True if a speci昀椀ed object is an instance of a speci昀椀ed object

issubclass() Returns True if a speci昀椀ed class is a subclass of a speci昀椀ed object

iter() Returns an iterator object

len() Returns the length of an object

list() Returns a list

locals() Returns an updated dic琀椀onary of the current local symbol table

map() Returns the speci昀椀ed iterator with the speci昀椀ed func琀椀on applied to each item

max() Returns the largest item in an iterable

min() Returns the smallest item in an iterable

next() Returns the next item in an iterable

object() Returns a new object

oct() Converts a number into an octal

open() Opens a 昀椀le and returns a 昀椀le object

ord() Convert an integer represen琀椀ng the Unicode of the speci昀椀ed character

pow() Returns the value of x to the power of y

print() Prints to the standard output device

property() Gets, sets, deletes a property

range() Returns a sequence of numbers, star琀椀ng from 0 and increments by 1 (by default)

round() Rounds a numbers

set() Returns a new set object

seta琀琀r()Sets an a琀琀ribute (property/method) of an object

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slice() Returns a slice object

sorted() Returns a sorted list

str() Returns a string object

sum() Sums the items of an iterator

tuple() Returns a tuple

type() Returns the type of an object

vars() Returns the __dict__ property of an object

zip() Returns an iterator, from two or more iterators

iii. Modules :
As the programs become more lengthy and complex, there arises a need for the
tasks to be split into smaller segments called modules.
A module is a 昀椀le containing func琀椀ons and variable de昀椀ned in separate 昀椀les. A
module is simply a 昀椀le that contains Python code or a series of instruc琀椀ons . When
we break a program into modules , each module should contain func琀椀ons that
performs related tasks . There are some commonly used modules in Python that
are used for certain prede昀椀ned tasks and they are called libraries.
Modules also make it easier to reuse the same code in more than one program. If
we have wri琀琀en a ste of func琀椀ons that is needed in several di昀昀erent programs , we
can place those func琀椀ons that is needed in several di昀昀erent programs, we can place
those func琀椀ons in a module. Then we can import the module in each program that
needs to call one of the func琀椀ons . Once we import a module we can refer to any
of its func琀椀ons or variable in our program.
A module in Python is a 昀椀le that contains a collec琀椀on of related func琀椀ons.

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Impor琀椀ng Modules in a python Program

Python language provides two important methods to import modules in a
program which are as follows :
(i) Import statement : To import entire module
(ii) From :To import all functions or selected ones
(iii) Import : To use modeule in a program , we import them using the
import statement.
Syntax : import modulename1 [ modulname2,------]
It is the simplest and the most common way to use modules in our code.\
Example:
import math
On execu琀椀ng

Output

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Random module (Genera琀椀ng random numbers)

The various func琀椀ons associated with the module are explained as follows:
randrange () : This method generates an integer between its lower and upper
argument. By default, the lower argument is 0 and upper argument is 1. The
following line of code generates random numbers from 0 to 29. In this instance
it is 15.

Random() : This func琀椀on generates a random number from 0 to 1 such as

0.564388 . This func琀椀on can be used to generate random 昀氀oa琀椀ng point values.
It takes no parameters and returns values uniformly distributed between 0 and
1 (including 0 , but excluding 1).

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-Example :

Example :

Example:

Example:

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Example:

Example :

Example :

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Example :

Example :

Example :

Example :

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Sample Programs
Example1: A Short Program , Guess the Number

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Simple Project:

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Ques琀椀ons for Prac琀椀ce:

1. What are the advantages of using functions in a program?
2. When the code in the function does executes during definition or calling.
3. Discuss How to create a function with example.
4. Explain the following with example
a. Functions
b. Function Call
c. Built in Function
d. Type Conversion Functions
e. Random Numbers
f. Math Functions
g. Adding new Functions
h. Defining and using the new functions
i. Flow of execution
j. Parameter and Arguments
k. Fruitful and void Functions
l. Advantages of Functions
5. Differentiate between argument and parameter.
6. What is the difference between a function and a function call?
7. How many global scopes and local scopes are there in Python program?
8. What happens to variables in a local scope when the function call returns?
9. What is a return value? Can a return value be part of an expression?
[Link] is the return value of the function which does not have return
statement?
[Link] can you force a variable in a function to refer to the global variable?
[Link] is the data type of None?
[Link] does the import allname statement do?
[Link] you had a function named radio() in a module named car who would you
call it after importing car.
[Link] can you prevent a program from crashing when it gets an error?
[Link] goes in the try clause? What goes in the except clause?
[Link] the flow of execution of a python function with an example
program to convert given Celsius to Fahrenheit temperature.

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[Link] the function arguments in python.

[Link] call by value and call by reference in python
[Link] explain about function prototypes
[Link] the scope and lifetime of a variable in python
[Link] out the uses of default arguments in python
[Link] the uses of python module.
[Link] how a function calls another function. Justify your Apply
answer
[Link] the syntax for function call with and without arguments.
[Link] recursive function
[Link] the syntax for passing arguments.
[Link] are the two parts of function definition give the syntax
[Link] discuss in detail about function prototyping in python. With suitable
example program
[Link] the difference between local and global variables.
[Link] with an example program to circulate the values of n variables
[Link] in detail about lambda functions or anonymous function.
[Link] in detail about the rules to be followed while using Lambda
function.
[Link] with an example program to return the average of its argument
[Link] the various features of functions in python.
[Link] the syntax and rules involved in the return statement in python.
[Link] a program to demonstrate the flow of control after the return
statement in python.
[Link] with an example program to pass the list arguments to a
function.
[Link] a program to perform selection sort from a list of numbers using
python.
[Link] the use of return () statement with a suitable example.
[Link] are the advantages and disadvantages of recursion function? A
[Link] the types of function arguments in python
[Link] recursive function. How do recursive function works? Explain with a
help of a program
[Link] the concept of local and global variables.

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45.A polygon can be represented by a list of (x, y) pairs where each pair is a
tuple: [ (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) , … (xn, yn)]. Write a Recursive function to
compute the area of a polygon. This can be accomplished by “cutting off” a
triangle, using the fact that a triangle with corners (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)
has area (x1y1 + x2y2 + x3y2 – y1x2 –y2x3 – y3x1) / 2.
[Link] is a lambda function?
[Link] Do We Write A Function In Python?
[Link] Is “Call By Value” In Python?
[Link] Is “Call By Reference” In Python?
[Link] It Mandatory For A Python Function To Return A Value? Comment?
[Link] Does The *Args Do In Python?
[Link] Does The **Kwargs Do In Python?
[Link] Python Have A Main() Method?
[Link] Is The Purpose Of “End” In Python?
[Link] Does The Ord() Function Do In Python?
[Link] are split(), sub(), and subn() methods in Python?
[Link] the syntax for the following functions and explain with an
example: a) abs() b) max() c) divmod() d) pow() e) len()

Programs for Prac琀椀ce:

1. Write a program to generate Fibonacci series upto the given limit
FIBONACCI(n) function.
2. Write a single user defined function named ‘Solve’ that returns the
Remainder and Quotient separately on the Console.
3. Write a program to find i) The largest of three numbers and ii) check whether
the given year is leap year or not with functions.
4. Find the area and perimeter of a circle using functions. Prompt the user for
input
5. Write a Python program using functions to find the value of nPr and nCr
without using inbuilt factorial() function.

6. Write a program to find the product of two matrices.

7. A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that is evenly divisible by only
1 and itself. For example, the number 5 is prime because it can only be

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evenly divided by 1 and 5. The number 6, however, is not prime because it

can be divided by 1, 2, 3, and 6.
8. Write a function named isPrime, which takes an integer as an argument and
returns True if the argument is a prime number, and False otherwise.
Define a function main() and call isPrime() function in main() to display a list
of the prime numbers from 100 to 500.
9. Write a program that lets the user perform arithmetic operations on two
numbers. Your program must be menu driven, allowing the user to select
the operation (+, -, *, or /) and input the numbers. Furthermore, your
program must consist of following functions:

1. Function showChoice: This function shows the options to the user and explains how
to enter data.
2. Function add: This function accepts two number as arguments and returns sum.
3. Function subtract: This function accepts two number as arguments and returns their
difference.
4. Function mulitiply: This function accepts two number as arguments and returns
product.
5. Function divide: This function accepts two number as arguments and returns
quotient.
Define a function main() and call functions in main().

10. Write a Python function for the following :

a. To find the Max of three numbers.
b. To sum all the numbers in a list
c. To multiply all the numbers in a list.
d. To reverse a string
e. To calculate the factorial of a number (a non-negative integer). The
function accepts the number as an argument
f. To check whether a number is in a given range
g. That accepts a string and calculate the number of upper case letters
and lower case letters.
h. That takes a list and returns a new list with unique elements of the
first list.
i. That takes a number as a parameter and check the number is prime
or not.
j. To print the even numbers from a given list
k. To check whether a number is perfect or not.
l. That checks whether a passed string is palindrome or not.

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m. That prints out the first n rows of Pascal's triangle.

n. To check whether a string is a pangram or not.
[Link] a Python program that accepts a hyphen-separated sequence of
words as input and prints the words in a hyphen-separated sequence after
sorting them alphabetically.
[Link] a Python function to create and print a list where the values are
square of numbers between 1 and 30 (both included).
[Link] a Python program to make a chain of function decorators (bold, italic,
underline etc.) in Python.
[Link] a Python program to execute a string containing Python code
[Link] a Python program to access a function inside a function
[Link] a Python program to detect the number of local variables declared in
a function.
17. Write a function calculation() such that it can accept two variables and
calculate the addition and subtraction of it. And also it must return both
addition and subtraction in a single return call
[Link] a function showEmployee() in such a way that it should accept
employee name, and it’s salary and display both, and if the salary is missing
in function call it should show it as 9000
[Link] an inner function to calculate the addition in the following way
a. Create an outer function that will accept two parameters a and b
b. Create an inner function inside an outer function that will calculate
the addition of a and b
c. At last, an outer function will add 5 into addition and return it
[Link] a recursive function to calculate the sum of numbers from 0 to 10
[Link] a function to calculate area and perimeter of a rectangle.
[Link] a function to calculate area and circumference of a circle.
[Link] a function to calculate power of a number raised to other. E.g.- ab.
[Link] a function to tell user if he/she is able to vote or not.( Consider
minimum age of voting to be 18. )
[Link] multiplication table of 12 using recursion.
[Link] a function to calculate power of a number raised to other ( ab ) using
recursion.
[Link] a function “perfect()” that determines if parameter number is a
perfect number. Use this function in a program that determines and prints
all the perfect numbers between 1 and 1000.[An integer number is said to

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be “perfect number” if its factors, including 1(but not the number itself),
sum to the number. E.g., 6 is a perfect number because 6=1+2+3].
[Link] a function to check if a number is even or not.
[Link] a function to check if a number is prime or not.
[Link] a function to find factorial of a number but also store the factorials
calculated in a dictionary as done in the Fibonacci series example.
31. Write a function to calculate area and perimeter of a rectangle.
[Link] is the output of the following Code ?
def foo(u, v, w=3):
return u * v * w

def bar(x):
y = 4
return foo(x, y)

print(foo(4,5,6))
print(bar(10))

[Link] is the output of the following Code ?

def change(t1,t2):
t1 = [100,200,300]
t2[0]= 8

list1 = [10,20,30]
list2 = [1,2,3]
change(list1, list2)
print(list1)
print(list2)

[Link] is the output of the following Code ?

def dot(a, b):

total = 0
for i in range(len(a)):
total += a[i] * b[i]
print(total)

x = [10,20,30]
y = [1,2,3,4]
dot(x,y)

[Link] is the output of the following Code ?

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def buz(arr, n):

for i in range(n-1):
if arr[i]>arr[i+1]:
arr[i], arr[i+1] = arr[i+1], arr[i]
print(arr)

def bar(arr,n):
for i in range(n-1):
buz(arr,n-i)

t = [19,7,4,1]
bar(t,len(t))

[Link] is the output of the following Code ?

def change(num1 ,num2=50):

num1 = num1 + num2
num2 = num1 - num2
print(num1, '#', num2)

n1 = 150
n2 = 100
change(n1,n2)
change(n2)
change(num2=n1,num1=n2)

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