Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Last Minute Preparation Short Notes
AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026
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Topics Covered:
1. Introduction of Synchronous Machines
2. Construction of Alternators & Armature Winding
3. Rotating Magnetic Field and Armature Reaction
4. Voltage Regulation and Two Reaction Theory
5. Power Flow Equations and Synchronising Power
6. Parallel Operation of Alternators
7. Synchronous Motors

👆🏻
Click on Topics or Title
For all subjects
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

📖 FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS
A Synchronous Machine consists of Synchronous Generators (Alternators) and Synchronous Motors.
These machines always rotate at Synchronous Speed (Nₛ), the speed of the stator (armature) field.
Generator: Mechanical energy → Electrical energy | Motor: Electrical energy →
Mechanical energy

🔢 KEY FORMULAS
f = P × N / 120
Where:
f = Frequency of induced EMF (Hz)
P = Number of poles
N = Speed in rpm (Nₛ for synchronous speed)
f = P × N / 2 (N in rps)
E = 4.44 × Kp × Kd × φ × f × T
Where:
E = Induced EMF (rms) per phase (V)
Kp = Pitch factor (coil span factor)
Kd = Distribution factor (breadth factor)
φ = Average flux per pole (Wb)
f = Frequency (Hz)
T = Number of turns per phase
e = B × l × v × sinθ = Emax sinωt
Where:
B = Flux density (Wb/m² or Tesla)
l = Active length of conductor (m)
v = Linear velocity of conductor (m/s)
θ = Angle between conductor and flux
v = π D N / 60 (m/sec, N in rpm)
v = π D N (N in rps)

🔀 SG vs INDUCTION GENERATOR COMPARISON

Parameter Synchronous Generator Induction Generator

Speed Nr = Ns, S = 0, f = constant Nr > Ns, S = -ve, f = variable

P & Q Delivery Delivers both P and Q Delivers P, Absorbs Q

P.F Control Power factor can be controlled Power factor cannot be controlled

P.F Range Lag, Lead, UPF (0.8 lag–0.9 lag to Operates only at Leading P.F
UPF)

Efficiency Good efficiency (η) Poor efficiency (η)

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Parameter Synchronous Generator Induction Generator

Suitable For Conventional power stations Non-conventional (wind, tidal)

🧠 IMPORTANCE OF CONSTANT FREQUENCY GENERATION

1. Standardisation between generators and consumers is essential.
2. All generating stations are interconnected through the Grid. For parallel operation, frequency must be
the same.
WHY 50 Hz or 60 Hz?
Problems with HIGH frequency:
• High reactance of transmission line (X ∝ f) → less power transmitting capability → no full
utilisation.
• More constant losses (Wh ∝ f, We ∝ f²) → less efficiency.
• Large effect of harmonics: fn = nf; if f is high, fn is still high.
• Speed limitations of turbines and generators: with high speed, large centrifugal forces
→ mechanical damage. For f = 1 kHz, N = 60,000 rpm.
Problems with LOW frequency:
• Flickering of lamps with low frequency.
• Larger size machines (generators, motors) → more cost, large space, transportation
problems.
• E = 4.44 KpKdφfN↑ → more turns, more slots, larger diameter of stator, rotor → large
size.

⚙️ PRINCIPLE OF ALTERNATOR
Alternator works on Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
"Whenever flux linkages change in a coil, an EMF will be induced in that coil."
"The magnitude of induced EMF is proportional to rate of change of flux linkages."
e = −N × dφ/dt
Where:
e = Induced EMF (V)
N = Number of turns
dφ/dt = Rate of change of flux linkages
Statically Induced EMF: Magnetic field is time-varying; no relative motion required. (e.g., Transformer)
Dynamically Induced EMF: Magnetic field is steady (time invariant). Relative motion between field and
conductor is required. (e.g., Generators, Motors)
Requirements for Dynamically Induced EMF:
• Conductor (i.e., Armature Conductors)
• Magnetic Flux (or Field)
• Relative motion between magnetic field and conductor — for cutting action, relative motion is
created by prime mover.
Flux Linkages: It means flux passing through the coil i.e., flux passing inside of the coil.

📊 3-φ ALTERNATOR — EMF RELATIONSHIPS

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Alternator Type Line Voltage (EL) Phase Angle of EL

3-φ (120° displacement) EL = √3 × Eph EL leads Eph by 30°

2-φ (90° displacement) EL = √2 × Eph EL leads Eph by 45°

3-φ (General expression) EL = √3 Eph sin(ωt + 30°) —

Phase Sequence (RYB): The order at which the maximum values of induced EMFs or currents are
obtained.
• Phase sequence of 3-φ alternator can be reversed by changing direction of field rotation.
• Phase sequence does NOT depend on field current direction or field polarities.
• Phase sequence CAN be reversed by changing armature rotation, prime mover rotation, or rotor
(field) rotation.
• Direction of rotation of synchronous motor can be changed by supply phase sequence.
• Direction of rotation of synchronous motor does NOT depend on field current or field polarities.
Note: In synchronous machine (synchronous motor), field current direction is least bothered; its
magnitude is only important.

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• f = PN/120 is for N in rpm; f = PN/2 is for N in rps.
• Frequency of induced EMF → f = PN/120 (GATE, AP GENCO most repeated
formula).
• Phase sequence reversal: change direction of FIELD rotation (or armature/PM rotation). NOT
by changing field current polarity.
• 80% of power generation is by conventional power stations.

✅ CHAPTER 1 SYNTHESIS & KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Synchronous machines operate ONLY at synchronous speed (Nr = Ns, S = 0).
• Frequency f = PN/120 is the fundamental formula linking electrical and mechanical
quantities.
• Alternator works on Faraday's law — dynamically induced EMF (steady field + relative
motion).
• For 3-φ system: EL = √3 × Eph; for 2-φ: EL = √2 × Eph.
• 50 Hz / 60 Hz is standardised for optimal efficiency and safety balance.
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 2: CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATORS & ARMATURE

WINDING
📖 MAIN PARTS OF ALTERNATOR
Stator (Armature) + Rotor (Field) — Two types based on rotor:
• (1) Salient Pole Rotor Alternator
• (2) Cylindrical Rotor Alternator (Non-salient / Round rotor)
Stator: Hollow cylindrical shape; inner periphery is slotted to accommodate armature winding. Stator
core is made with Cold Rolled Non-Oriented Steel with 3% Silicon (silicon steel), laminated to reduce
eddy current losses.

📊 SALIENT vs CYLINDRICAL ROTOR COMPARISON

Feature Salient Pole Rotor Cylindrical Rotor

Shape Projecting poles (coming out) Cylindrical in shape

Air gap Non-uniform (min along d-axis, Uniform throughout

max along q-axis)

Flux distribution Non-sinusoidal (flat-topped); Sinusoidal (distributed field

sinusoidal by chamfering winding)

Speed range 50–1000 rpm (200–400 rpm most 1500–3000 rpm (50 Hz); 1800–
common) 3600 rpm (60 Hz)

No. of poles Many poles (120–6) Only 2 or 4 poles

D:L ratio D ≅ 5L → L/D ≅ 0.2 L ≅ (5–7)D → L/D ≅ 5–7

Rotor material Laminated steel (field on pole core) Solid steel forging (Ni, Cr, Mo)

Balancing Not mechanically balanced well Mechanically strong, balanced

Damper winding Required — to suppress hunting NOT required — eddy currents act
as damper

Suitable turbine Hydraulic turbine (water turbine): High-speed: Steam turbines, Gas
Pelton, Kaplan, Francis, Diesel turbines

Name Hydroalternator / Engine driven Turbo alternator / High-speed

alternator alternator

Power ∝ P ∝ D²L P ∝ D²L

⚙️ DAMPER WINDING (Amortisseur / Cage Winding)

Construction: Made with copper bars inserted in slots under pole shoes; short-circuited on both sides
with end rings (similar to squirrel cage rotor of induction motor).
Functions in Alternator:
• 1. To eliminate Hunting (i.e., rotor oscillations)
• 2. To suppress negative sequence field
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Functions in Synchronous Motor:

• 1. To eliminate Hunting
• 2. For starting purpose (acts as squirrel cage IM at start)
Causes of Hunting:
• Sudden change in Load (Tem ∝ ØI; ω = (Tpm − Tem)/B)
• Sudden change in Supply Stem System (Tpm, Xm, f)
• Sudden change in field system or excitation (Tem ∝ ØI)
• Load containing harmonic torques (i.e., intermittent loads like punching machines)
Note: "Sudden change in voltage" is NOT a cause of hunting.
Elimination of Hunting:
• 1. By using flywheel
• 2. By designing the machine with suitable synchronising power coefficient
• 3. By using damper winding
Cylindrical rotor alternator has NO damper winding — because hunting is less pronounced, and solid
steel rotor itself acts as good damper bar.

🔢 ARMATURE WINDING — TYPES & TERMS

Preferred winding type: Distributed – Short pitched – Fractional Slot winding → to generate
pure sinusoidal voltage (to eliminate harmonics).
Harmonic Order: Odd harmonics only: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 …
• Lower order harmonics (3, 5, 7) → more dominant
• Higher order harmonics (9, 11, 13…) → less dominant
• 3, 9, 15, 21 … are Triple-n harmonics (Co-phasial / Zero sequence harmonics)
Reasons for harmonics: Non-sinusoidal flux distribution in airgap due to saturation.
Key Definitions:

Term Symbol Definition / Formula

Coil Span / Pitch β Angle (or distance) between two sides of a coil. Full pitch: β
= 180°e = S/P slots

Short Pitch Angle α α = 180° − β or α = short pitch in slots × γ

Pole Pitch — = 180° electrical. Each pole contributes 180°e

Slot Angle / Slot Pitch γ γ = PX180° / S = 180° / (S/P) [electrical degrees per slot]

Phase Belt m Group of slots belonging to each phase under each pole =
S/(P×phases) slots

Phase Spread mγ 3-φ: 60°; 2-φ: 90°; 1-φ: 180°. Angle subtended by phase
belt.

Electrical angle (θe) — θe = (P/2) × θm

Slots/pole/phase m m = S / (P × number of phases)

🔢 PITCH FACTOR (Kp) — CHORDING FACTOR

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Kp = Vector sum of EMF/coil / Arithmetic sum of EMF/coil

Kp = cos(α/2) → for fundamental
Where:
α = Short pitch angle (chording angle)
Kpn = cos(nα/2) → for nth harmonic
• Kp = 1 → full pitch winding (α = 0)
• Kp < 1 → short pitch winding
• Kp₁ > Kp₃ > Kp₅ (distribution similar trend)
• Short pitch angle to eliminate nth harmonic: α = 180°/n
• Coil span to eliminate nth harmonic: β = 180°(n−1)/n
To eliminate 5th harmonic: α = 36°, β = 144°
To eliminate 7th harmonic: α = 25.7°, β = 154.3°
To eliminate both 5th & 7th: α ≅ 30°, β ≅ 150°
Note: In most AC machines coil span is chosen as 150° (short pitched by 30°) so that nearly 75% of 5th
& 7th harmonics are eliminated. Disadvantage: small 3–4% reduction in fundamental voltage.

🔢 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR (Kd) — SPREAD FACTOR

Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [m × sin(γ/2)] → for fundamental
Where:
m = Number of slots per pole per phase (slots/pole/phase)
γ = Slot angle (electrical degrees per slot)
Kdn = sin(mnγ/2) / [m × sin(nγ/2)] → for nth harmonic

Kdu = sin(mγ/2) / [mγ/2 × π/180] → uniformly distributed winding

• Kd ≤ 1 always
• Kd = 1 for concentrated winding (m = 1, slots/pole/phase = 1)
• Kd < 1 for distributed winding (m ≥ 2)
• Kd₁ > Kd₃ > Kd₅
• KVA ∝ Kd; Pout ∝ Kd; Eph ∝ Kd × Tph
Winding Type Condition Kd value

Concentrated winding m = 1 (slots/pole/phase = 1) Kd = 1

Distributed winding m≥2 Kd < 1

Uniformly distributed (1- mγ → 180° Kdu = 2/π

φ)

Uniformly distributed (3- mγ → 60° Kdu = 3/π

φ)

🔢 EMF EQUATION — FULL FORM

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

E = 4.44 × Kp × Kd × φ × f × T [For distributed & short pitched

winding]
E = 4.44 × φ × f × T [Full pitch & concentrated: Kp
= Kd = 1]
EMF lags flux linkages by 90°.
Proof: φ = φ cosωt → e = −T × d(φ)/dt = Tωφ sinωt = Emax sinωt
Therefore: Emax = 2πfTφ; Erms = E = √2 π f T φ = 4.44φfT
Average value of flux per pole:
φ = (2DL/P) × Bmax
Where:
D = Diameter of rotor (m)
L = Length of rotor (m)
P = Number of poles
Bmax = Maximum flux density

📊 DOUBLE vs SINGLE LAYER WINDING

Feature Double Layer Winding Single Layer Winding

Coil sides per slot Two coil sides per slot One coil side per slot

No. of coils No. of coils = No. of slots No. of coils = ½ × No. of slots

Short pitch winding Possible NOT possible

Application Preferred in practice Less common

📊 STAR (Y) vs DELTA (Δ) ARMATURE WINDING

Advantages of Star Connected Armature Winding:
• 1. Triple-n harmonics are eliminated in line voltages (co-phasial → cancel out). Formula:
EL = √3 × √(E²ph1 + E²ph5 + E²ph7 + ...)
• 2. More line voltage (√3 times) → more transmission voltage, less current, less losses →
better transmission efficiency.
• 3. Insulation cost is 1/√3 times that of delta for same line voltage.
• 4. Neutral is available for earth protection and grounding.
Disadvantage of Delta Connected Armature:
• Triple-n harmonics produce circulating currents in closed delta → unwanted copper
losses, heating effect, reduction in efficiency.

📊 KVA RATING RELATIONSHIPS

KVA₃ₓ(3-φ) / KVA₁ₓ(1-φ) = Kd60 / Kd180 = [sin(60/2)] / [sin(180/2)]
× (180/60) = 1.5
KVA₂ₓ(2-φ) / KVA₁ₓ(1-φ) = Kd90 / Kd180 = √2 ≅ 1.414
KVA ∝ Pout ∝ number of phases
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Rating of Alternator: KVA / MVA (decided by Temperature, i.e., Thermal limit). Iron losses
depend on V; Copper losses depend on Ia → Rating in KVA/MVA.

⚠️ EXAM TIPS — WINDING

• Short pitch winding is only possible with double layer winding, NOT with single layer.
• Kp = cos(α/2); Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [m sin(γ/2)] — memorise these exactly.
• To eliminate nth harmonic: α = 180°/n; β = 180°(n−1)/n.
• Preferred coil span for practical machines: β ≅ 150° (eliminates ~75% of 5th
& 7th harmonics).
• 3-φ uniformly distributed Kdu = 3/π; 1-φ Kdu = 2/π.

✅ CHAPTER 2 SYNTHESIS
• Salient pole → low speed, many poles, L/D = 0.2, hydraulic turbines.
• Cylindrical rotor → high speed, 2 or 4 poles, L/D = 5–7, steam/gas turbines.
• Armature winding must be distributed, short-pitched, fractional slot →
sinusoidal EMF.
• E = 4.44 Kp Kd φ f T — the master EMF equation to cross-verify all formulas.
• Star connection preferred: eliminates triple-n harmonics, gives neutral point.
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 3: ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD & ARMATURE

REACTION
📖 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD (RMF)
For production of RMF:
• Winding must be spatially displaced (by 120° for 3-φ, 90° for 2-φ)
• Currents must be phasically (timely) displaced (by 120° for 3-φ)
Properties of RMF:
• RMF rotates at synchronous speed → balanced currents in balanced winding → poles
rotate at Ns.
• Direction of RMF depends on phase sequence (RYB → clockwise).
• To reverse direction: change phase sequence (interchange any two supply leads).

🔢 MAGNITUDE OF RESULTANT MMF / FLUX

Fr = (3/2) × Fm = 1.5 Fm → for 3-φ
Where:
Fr = Resultant (airgap) MMF
Fm = Maximum MMF due to each phase
φr = (3/2) × φm = 1.5 φm → for 3-φ

Fr = Fm and φr = φm → for 2-φ

Load Angle (δ): δ = angle between Fr (airgap MMF) and Fm (main field MMF / rotor MMF).
Torque Angle (λ): λ = angle between Fa (armature MMF) and Fm (main field MMF).

🔢 PRODUCTION OF TORQUE
Tem = EIa / ω = Pe / ω
Where:
Tem = Electromagnetic torque (N·m)
E = Induced EMF (V)
Ia = Armature current (A)
ω = Angular velocity = 2πN/60 (rad/s)
Pe = Electrical power converted (W)
TPM = J × dω/dt + B × ω + Tem = TI + TB + Tem
Where:
TPM = Prime mover torque
TI = Inertia torque (exists only during starting)
TB = Friction/windage torque
Under Steady State: ω = constant, TI = 0, ∴ TPM = TB + Tem

ω = (TPM − Tem) / B
In Generator: Electromagnetic torque (Tem) opposes rotation (braking torque / counter torque /
magnetic drag).
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

In Motor: Tem assists rotation (Tem and TPM are in same direction).
Magnetic Drag: The electromagnetic torque opposition in generator is called Magnetic Drag.
Tem ∝ φIa ∝ Ia ∝ Load.

📖 ARMATURE REACTION
Definition: The effect of armature MMF (Fa) on the main field MMF (Fm) / the effect of armature current
on the main magnetic field.
The resultant field (Fr) = Fm + Fa (vector sum).

Load Condition P.F Nature of Armature Reaction Effect on Fr

Unity Power cos φ = 1 Cross magnetising (purely) Fr = Fm (magnitude);

Factor (UPF) distortion only

Lagging P.F cos φ = 0 lag Purely demagnetising Fr < Fm (weakens field)

(ZPF lag)

Leading P.F cos φ = 0 Purely magnetising Fr > Fm (strengthens field)

(ZPF lead) lead

General Lagging 0 < φ < 90° Partly cross, partly Fr < Fm

lag demagnetising

General Leading 0 < φ < 90° Partly cross, partly Fr > Fm

lead magnetising

🔢 CAUSES FOR DROP OF VOLTAGE IN ALTERNATOR

• 1. Drop due to Armature Resistance → IaRa drop (very small ≅ 0.01 p.u.)
• 2. Drop due to Armature Leakage Reactance → IaXl drop (≅ 0.15 p.u.)
• 3. Drop due to Armature Reaction → IaXa drop (≅ 0.84 p.u.)
IaXl & IaXa will be in same phase → define Synchronous Reactance:
Xs = Xa + Xl → Synchronous Reactance
Zs = Ra + jXs → Synchronous Impedance
|Zs| = √(Ra² + Xs²)
θ = tan⁻¹(Xs / Ra) → Impedance angle ≅ 90° (80°–85°)
Ra = Zs cosθ; Xs = Zs sinθ
Since Ra << Xs: Ra is neglected. ∴ θ ≅ 90°
IaRa ≅ 0.01 p.u.; IaXl ≅ 0.15 p.u.; IaXa ≅ 0.84 p.u.

🔢 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF ALTERNATOR

EMF Equation from phasor diagram (Lagging P.F):
E = √[ (Vcosφ + IaRa)² + (Vsinφ + IaXs)² ] [Lagging P.F]
Where:
E = No-load EMF / Induced EMF (V)
V = Terminal voltage (V)
φ = Power factor angle
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Ia = Armature current (A)

Ra = Armature resistance (Ω)
Xs = Synchronous reactance (Ω)
E = √[ (Vcosφ + IaRa)² + (Vsinφ − IaXs)² ] [Leading P.F]

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• RMF magnitude: Fr = 1.5Fm for 3-φ; Fr = Fm for 2-φ.
• Armature reaction is DEMAGNETISING for lagging p.f → voltage drops.
• Armature reaction is MAGNETISING for leading p.f → voltage rises.
• Tem = Pe/ω = EIa/ω (most asked formula for electromagnetic torque).

✅ CHAPTER 3 SYNTHESIS
• RMF produced by 3-φ balanced currents in balanced winding; rotates at Ns.
• Resultant flux φr = 1.5φm for 3-φ system.
• Armature reaction: demagnetising (lag), magnetising (lead), cross-magnetising (UPF).
• Xs = Xa + Xl; Zs = Ra + jXs; E = √[(Vcosφ+IaRa)² + (Vsinφ±IaXs)²].
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 4: VOLTAGE REGULATION & TWO REACTION THEORY

📖 VOLTAGE REGULATION
Definition: The change in terminal voltage from No Load to Full Load, expressed as percentage of full
load terminal voltage, at constant speed and field current.
VR (%) = [(E − V) / V] × 100
Where:
E = No load EMF (= terminal voltage at no load)
V = Full load terminal voltage
• Lagging P.F → VR is positive (+ve) and maximum
• UPF → VR is positive but smaller than lagging P.F
• Leading P.F → VR may be negative (−ve) for highly leading P.F
Maximum Regulation condition: occurs for lagging P.F → because both resistance drop and
reactance drop add up for lagging P.F.
Negative Regulation: occurs at leading P.F when E < V (terminal voltage rises on load).

🔢 METHODS OF DETERMINING VOLTAGE REGULATION

Method Also Known As Accuracy Nature

EMF Method Synchronous Pessimistic (over- Simple; uses OCC & SCC
Impedance Method estimates)
(SIM)

MMF Method Ampere-turn Method Optimistic (under- Uses OCC; more accurate
estimates) than EMF method

ZPF Method Potier Method More accurate Uses OCC & ZPF curve; finds
Potier reactance (Xp = Xl)

ASA Method Modified MMF Most accurate Considers saturation effect

Method properly

🔢 OCC, SCC & SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO (SCR)

OCC (Open Circuit Characteristic): E vs If at rated speed, on no load. Shows saturation effect.
SCC (Short Circuit Characteristic): Isc vs If at rated speed, armature short-circuited. Linear
(unsaturated).
Xs (unsaturated) = E (from OCC at If) / Isc (from SCC at same If)
SCR = Ifm / Ifa
Where:
Ifm = Field current to generate rated voltage at no-load (from OCC)
Ifa = Field current to produce rated armature current under short circuit (from SCC)
SCR = 1 / Xs [saturated/adjusted, p.u.] = Fm / Fa

Machine Type SCR Range

Cylindrical rotor synchronous machine 0.6–0.9

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Machine Type SCR Range

Salient pole synchronous machine 0.9–1.5

Synchronous Condenser ≅ 0.4

📊 CHARACTERISTICS OF ALTERNATOR
1. OCC: E vs If — shows magnetic saturation effect.
2. SCC: Isc vs If — linear (low magnetic saturation during short circuit).
3. Load Characteristics: V vs Ia at constant If, constant p.f, constant N.
4. External Load Characteristics: V vs Ia at constant If, constant p.f, constant N.
5. Regulation Curves: If vs Ia at constant V, constant p.f, constant N.
Order of curves (OCC V vs If): ZPF lead (highest) > 0.8 lead > UPF at rated Ia > 0.8 lag > ZPF lag
(lowest).
External load characteristic order: ZPF lead → rises with load; lagging → falls with load.

🔢 TWO REACTION THEORY (Blondel's Theory)

Applicable to: Salient pole synchronous machines (non-uniform airgap).
Proposed by: BLONDEL.
Principle: Armature reaction MMF (Fa) is resolved into two components:
• Fd = Direct axis (d-axis) component → along main field MMF (Fm). Demagnetising for
lagging p.f.
• Fq = Quadrature axis (q-axis) component → perpendicular to Fm. Cross-magnetising
always.
Xad = Xa along d-axis; Xaq = Xa along q-axis
Xd = Xad + Xl → d-axis synchronous reactance
Xq = Xaq + Xl → q-axis synchronous reactance
Xd > Xq (because airgap is minimum along d-axis → reluctance minimum
→ inductance maximum)

Parameter Cylindrical Rotor Salient Pole

Airgap Uniform Non-uniform

Armature reaction Same along d and q axis Different along d and q axis

Reactances Xd = Xq = Xs Xd > Xq

Reactance measurement Single Xs sufficient Two reactances Xd & Xq needed

🔢 MEASUREMENT OF Xd & Xq (Slip Test)

Slip Test: Apply balanced reduced 3-φ voltage to armature with field open; rotor driven at speed slightly
less than Ns (so slip is small).
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Case 1: Armature poles align with d-axis → airgap minimum → reluctance minimum → to
establish constant flux, current is minimum → Ammeter reads MINIMUM, Voltmeter reads
MAXIMUM.
Case 2: Armature poles align with q-axis → airgap maximum → reluctance maximum →
current is maximum → Ammeter reads MAXIMUM, Voltmeter reads MINIMUM.
Xd = Vmax/ph / Imin/ph
Xq = Vmin/ph / Imax/ph

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• EMF method → pessimistic (gives higher VR than actual).
• MMF method → optimistic (gives lower VR than actual).
• ZPF method gives Potier reactance Xp = Xl (leakage reactance).
• SCR = 1/Xs (p.u.) → higher SCR → more stable machine but larger and costly.
• Two reaction theory: Xd > Xq for salient pole; Xd = Xq = Xs for cylindrical rotor.

✅ CHAPTER 4 SYNTHESIS
• VR = [(E−V)/V] × 100; maximum for lagging p.f; may be negative for leading
p.f.
• SCR = Ifm/Ifa = 1/Xs(p.u.) → ranges 0.6–0.9 (cylindrical), 0.9–1.5 (salient
pole).
• Two Reaction Theory: Fa split into Fd (d-axis) and Fq (q-axis). Xd > Xq.
• Slip test measures Xd and Xq for salient pole machine.
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 5: POWER FLOW EQUATIONS & SYNCHRONISING

POWER
🔢 POWER FLOW EQUATIONS — CYLINDRICAL ROTOR
P = (EV / Xs) × sinδ [per phase, Ra neglected]
Where:
P = Active power (W)
E = Induced EMF (V)
V = Terminal voltage (V)
Xs = Synchronous reactance (Ω)
δ = Power angle / Load angle / Torque angle (angle between E and V)
Q = (V/Xs) × [Ecosδ − V] [per phase]
Where:
Q = Reactive power (VAR)
Q > 0 → Deliver Q (overexcited, lagging p.f)
Q < 0 → Absorb Q (underexcited, leading p.f)
Pmax = EV / Xs [at δ = 90°]

🔢 POWER FLOW — SALIENT POLE MACHINE (TWO REACTION)

P = (EV/Xd)sinδ + (V²/2)(1/Xq − 1/Xd)sin2δ
Where:
First term: Electromagnetic power (Pem) — depends on excitation
Second term: Reluctance power (Prel) — independent of excitation
Pem max → at δ = 90°
Prel max → at δ = 45° (called Double Frequency Power / Even
Harmonic Power)
• When excitation fails: Pem = 0, but machine develops Prel (reluctance torque) if connected to
busbar.
• When excitation fails, machine absorbs reactive power to magnetise core → works on
reluctance principle.
• Salient pole machine is more stable and more power output due to extra reluctance power.
• Reluctance machines (reluctance motor / reluctance generator) = unexcited
synchronous machines → rotate at synchronous speed without excitation.

🔢 SYNCHRONISING POWER & TORQUE

Synchronising Power Coefficient (Psy):
Psy = dP/dδ = (EV/Xs)cosδ [per phase, cylindrical rotor]
Where:
Psy = Rate of change of power with load angle
Psy = (EV/Xd)cosδ + V²(1/Xq − 1/Xd)cos2δ [salient pole]
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Tsy = Psy / ωs = Psy × 60 / (2πNs)

Where:
Tsy = Synchronising torque (N·m)
ωs = 2πNs/60 (rad/s)
Significance: Higher Psy → machine is more stable → resists disturbances better.

🧠 STEADY STATE STABILITY

Steady State Stability Limit: The maximum power that can be transferred without loss of synchronism
under steady conditions = Pmax = EV/Xs (cylindrical). For salient pole it is higher than EV/Xd.
Stability Condition: dP/dδ > 0 → machine is stable. Machine becomes unstable when δ > 90°
(cylindrical rotor).

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• P = (EV/Xs)sinδ — most important formula; maximum at δ = 90°.
• Prel max at δ = 45°; Pem max at δ = 90° for salient pole.
• Synchronising power Psy = dP/dδ; higher Psy → more stable.
• Q > 0 → overexcited → delivers reactive power → lagging p.f load.

✅ CHAPTER 5 SYNTHESIS
• P = (EV/Xs)sinδ; Q = (V/Xs)(Ecosδ − V); Pmax at δ = 90°.
• Salient pole: Extra reluctance power (V²/2)(1/Xq − 1/Xd)sin2δ.
• Machine stable if dP/dδ > 0 (δ < 90° for cylindrical rotor).
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 6: PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS

📖 CONDITIONS FOR PARALLEL OPERATION (SYNCHRONISATION)

Condition Must Be

1. Terminal Voltage Equal (E₁ = E₂ = Vbus)

2. Frequency Equal (f₁ = f₂)

3. Phase Sequence Same (RYB = RYB)

4. Phase Angle Same (in phase — no phase difference)

Note: Waveform shape (same) is a 5th ideal condition but not strictly required in practice.

⚙️ SYNCHRONISATION METHODS
1. Dark Lamp Method: Three lamps connected across each phase. When all lamps are dark
simultaneously → synchronisation condition is met (V₁ = V₂ in phase).
2. Bright Lamp Method: Lamps are bright simultaneously → synchronisation. More reliable
than dark lamp method for phase sequence check.
3. Synchroscope: Instrument that shows the phase difference between incoming and
running alternator. Pointer rotates; when pointer stops → synchronisation.

🔢 TWO ALTERNATORS IN PARALLEL

Effect of Change in Excitation:
• Change in excitation → change in reactive power (KVAR) sharing.
• No change in active power (KW) sharing due to excitation change.
• Reactive power is controlled with excitation; thereby power factor is controlled.
Effect of Change in Mechanical Power Input:
• Change in mechanical power → change in active power (KW) sharing.
• No change in reactive power (KVAR) sharing.
• Change in mechanical power of m₁ increases its KW; m₂ decreases its KW.
If Mech. Power of M₁ ↑ M/C₁ Result M/C₂ Result

KVAR (Reactive) KVAR₁ = KVAR₂ (No change) No change

KW (Active) KW₁ ↑ KW₂ ↓

KVA KVA₁ ↑ KVA₂ ↓

Armature Current (Ia) Ia₁ ↑ Ia₂ ↓

Power Factor P.F₁ ↑ P.F₂ ↓

🔢 ALTERNATOR ON INFINITE BUSBAR

Infinite Busbar Definition: One where finite amount of power fed or consumed causes NO change in
terminal voltage and frequency. Voltage and frequency are extremely constant.
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Infinite busbar = Voltage source with zero internal impedance + infinite rotational inertia.
Ia = (E − V) / Xs
Where:
E = Excitation voltage (V)
V = Busbar voltage (constant)
Xs = Synchronous reactance
Qs = (V / Xs) × [Ecosδ − V]
Ps = (EV / Xs) × sinδ
No Load Condition: P = 0 → δ = 0. Normal excitation: E = V → Ia = 0 → floating on busbar.
Normal excitation → floating (Ia = 0, P = 0, Q = 0).
Over-excitation (E > V) → δ > 0 → delivers reactive power Q.
Under-excitation (E < V) → δ < 0 → absorbs reactive power Q.

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• 4 conditions for parallel operation: Voltage, Frequency, Phase sequence, Phase angle.
• Change in excitation → KVAR changes (reactive power). KW does NOT change.
• Change in mechanical input → KW changes (active power). KVAR does NOT
change.
• Infinite busbar: V and f constant regardless of power fed/consumed.

✅ CHAPTER 6 SYNTHESIS
• Synchronisation: same V, f, phase sequence, and phase angle.
• Excitation controls reactive power; prime mover controls active power.
• Infinite busbar: zero internal impedance, constant V and f.
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

CHAPTER 7: SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

📖 INTRODUCTION
Application point of view: Nearly 80% of motors are Induction Motors (rugged, easy speed control,
small size, less cost, cheaper, low maintenance, good efficiency).
Synchronous motors are preferred for: Large power, low speed applications — for large power low
speeds, synchronous motors are cheaper and smaller compared to equivalent rating induction motors.
Constructionally: No difference between synchronous generator and synchronous motor. Two types:
salient pole synchronous motor & cylindrical rotor synchronous motor.

⚙️ WHY SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR IS NOT SELF-STARTING

When 3-φ supply is applied to armature (stator):
• Stator produces RMF rotating at synchronous speed (Ns).
• Rotor is stationary initially (Ia × field flux → rotor tries to align with stator poles).
• But stator poles rotate very fast (Ns) → in first half cycle, rotor pulled in one direction;
in next half cycle, pulled in opposite direction.
• Due to inertia, rotor cannot follow → net torque = 0. Hence NOT self-starting.

⚙️ STARTING METHODS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

1. Using Damper Winding: Motor starts as a squirrel cage induction motor (damper
winding acts as IM rotor). When it reaches near synchronous speed, DC excitation is
applied → motor pulls into synchronism.
2. Using Induction Motor (Pony Motor): Separate small induction motor drives synchronous
motor to near synchronous speed, then DC excitation applied → synchronised.
3. Using DC Motor: DC motor coupled to synchronous motor shaft drives it to synchronous speed.

🔢 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Motor equation (opposite sign convention to generator):
V = E + j Ia Xs → Motor (E lags V)
Ia = (V − E) / Xs
Where:
V = Applied terminal voltage (V)
E = Back EMF / Excitation voltage (V)
Ia = Armature current (A)
Xs = Synchronous reactance (Ω)
P = VIa cosφ = EV sinδ / Xs [per phase]
Q = VIa sinφ = (V/Xs)(V − Ecosδ)
Qs = (V/Xs)(V − Ecosδ)
Where:
Qs > 0 → Absorb Q (underexcited, lagging p.f → absorbs KVAR)
Qs < 0 → Deliver Q (overexcited, leading p.f → delivers KVAR)

📊 EFFECT OF CHANGE IN EXCITATION (V-CURVES & Inverted V-CURVES)

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

At constant mechanical load:

Excitation E vs V Ia Magnitude Power Factor Machine Behaviour

Normal Excitation Ecosδ = V Minimum Ia Unity (UPF) Normal operation

Over Excitation Ecosδ > V; E > V Ia increases Leading Acts as capacitor /

Synchronous condenser

Under Excitation Ecosδ < V; E < V Ia increases Lagging Acts as inductor

V-Curves: Plot of Ia vs If at constant load (P = constant, N = constant). Ia is minimum at unity power

factor (normal excitation). The U-shaped curves are called V-curves.
Inverted V-Curves: Plot of Power Factor (cos φ) vs If. P.F is maximum (= 1) at normal excitation. The
inverted U-shaped curves are called Inverted V-curves.
As mechanical load increases: The V-curves shift upward (Ia increases). The normal excitation point
also shifts right (more field current needed to maintain unity p.f).

🧠 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER
Definition: An overexcited synchronous motor running at NO LOAD (P ≅ 0) → behaves as a
capacitor → used to improve power factor of the system.
Proof: At no load, P = VIa cosφ ≅ 0 → cosφ ≅ 0 → φ = 90°. When overexcited, E > V → Ia
leads V by 90° → ZPF Lead → armature reaction is purely demagnetising (from V
perspective). Q = VIa sin90° = VIa → delivers reactive power Q → acts as capacitor.
Synchronous condenser SCR ≅ 0.4. (Lower SCR → less stable but economical for
reactive compensation)

🔢 EFFECT OF CHANGE IN MECHANICAL LOAD

At constant excitation (If = constant):
• As mechanical load increases: δ increases, Ia increases, KW increases, KVA increases.
• Power factor may increase (if underexcited) or decrease (if overexcited) with increasing load.
• Normal excitation → UPF at a specific load only (V-curve shifts with load).
Parameter Overexcited (If ↑ at Underexcited (If ↓ at const.
const. load) load)

E vs V E > V → Overexcited E < V → Underexcited

Ia direction Ia leads V (leading p.f) Ia lags V (lagging p.f)

Q (Reactive power) Delivers Q (+ve Q to system) Absorbs Q (−ve Q from system)

Armature Reaction Demagnetising (weakens field Magnetising

seen from generator side)

Equivalent circuit V = E + jIaXs V = E + jIaXs (Ia direction changes)

📊 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE ON BUSBAR — ALL DISTURBANCES

Prime Mover Excitation Behaviour

PM → Coupled Excitation ON Synchronous Generator (Alternator)

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Prime Mover Excitation Behaviour

(available)

PM → Coupled Excitation OFF Induction Generator (rotates > Ns) OR Reluctance

(available) (failed/field open) Generator (salient pole at light load, rotates at Ns)

PM → Decoupled Excitation OFF Cylindrical: Induction Motor (rotates < Ns) Salient
(failed) (failed/field open) pole: Reluctance Motor (rotates at Ns)

🔗 ANALOGIES & CLARITY NOTES

Analogy 1 — Synchronous Motor vs Capacitor:
Think of an overexcited synchronous motor as a "rotating capacitor." Just like a capacitor supplies
leading current to the system, the overexcited motor pushes out reactive power (Q), improving power
factor.
Analogy 2 — V-Curves:
The V-shape of the Ia vs If curve is like a valley — the bottom of the valley (minimum Ia) is always at
unity power factor. Moving left (under-excitation) or right (over-excitation) from the valley bottom
increases Ia — both sides lead to increased current.

⚠️ EXAM TIPS
• Synchronous motor is NOT self-starting — most common MCQ in AP GENCO/TRANSCO.
• Overexcited synchronous motor at no load = Synchronous condenser (acts as capacitor).
• V-curves: Ia vs If; Inverted V-curves: P.F vs If. Minimum Ia at unity p.f.
• Motor phasor: V = E + jIaXs (opposite sign to generator V = E − jIaXs).
• Change in excitation → KVAR changes; Change in mechanical load → KW
changes.
• SCR ranges: Cylindrical 0.6–0.9; Salient 0.9–1.5; Synchronous condenser 0.4.

✅ CHAPTER 7 SYNTHESIS & KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Synchronous motor is NOT self-starting; starts using damper winding (as IM), pony motor, or
DC motor.
• Motor equation: V = E + jIaXs; Generator equation: E = V + jIaXs.
• Overexcited → leading p.f → delivers reactive power. Underexcited → lagging
p.f → absorbs reactive power.
• Synchronous condenser = overexcited synchronous motor at no load →
capacitive → used for P.F improvement.
• V-curves show Ia vs If at constant mechanical load. Inverted V-curves show P.F vs If.
• Excitation controls reactive power (KVAR); Mechanical load controls active power (KW).
Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

MASTER FORMULA REFERENCE TABLE — SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINES

Formula Description Units

f = PN/120 Frequency (N in rpm) Hz

f = PN/2 Frequency (N in rps) Hz

e = BLv sinθ Induced EMF in conductor V

v = πDN/60 Linear velocity (N in rpm) m/s

Emax = 2πfTφ Maximum EMF per phase V

Erms = E = 4.44φfT RMS EMF (full pitch, concentrated) V

E = 4.44 Kp Kd φ f T RMS EMF (general EMF equation) V

Kp = cos(α/2) Pitch factor (fundamental) —

Kpn = cos(nα/2) Pitch factor (nth harmonic) —

Kd = sin(mγ/2) / [m sin(γ/2)] Distribution factor (fundamental) —

Kdn = sin(mnγ/2) / [m sin(nγ/2)] Distribution factor (nth harmonic) —

α = 180°/n Short pitch angle to eliminate nth °

harmonic

β = 180°(n−1)/n Coil span to eliminate nth harmonic °

γ = PX180/S Slot angle °e

φ = (2DL/P) × Bmax Average flux per pole Wb

EL = √3 Eph Line voltage (3-φ, Y-connection) V

EL = √2 Eph Line voltage (2-φ connection) V

Fr = 1.5 Fm (3-φ) Resultant MMF / flux AT / Wb

Xs = Xa + Xl Synchronous reactance Ω

Zs = Ra + jXs Synchronous impedance Ω

E = √[(Vcosφ+IaRa)² + EMF (lagging p.f, from phasor) V

(Vsinφ+IaXs)²]

VR = [(E−V)/V] × 100 Voltage Regulation %

SCR = Ifm/Ifa = 1/Xs(p.u.) Short Circuit Ratio —

Tem = EIa/ω = Pe/ω Electromagnetic torque N·m

Created by: Baisani Nageswar Reddy | Synchronous Machines — Last Minute Prep Notes | AP GENCO / TRANSCO / DISCOMs 2026

Formula Description Units

TPM = TI + TB + Tem Prime mover torque equation N·m

P = (EV/Xs) sinδ Active power (cylindrical rotor) W

Q = (V/Xs)(Ecosδ − V) Reactive power (generator) VAR

Prel = (V²/2)(1/Xq − 1/Xd)sin2δ Reluctance power (salient pole) W

Psy = dP/dδ = (EV/Xs)cosδ Synchronising power coefficient W/rad

Xd = Vmax/ph / Imin/ph d-axis reactance (slip test) Ω

Xq = Vmin/ph / Imax/ph q-axis reactance (slip test) Ω

V = E + jIaXs Motor phasor equation V