SAMPLING METHODS

What is sampling?

• Sampling involves the strategic selection of individuals or a subset from a

population, aiming to derive statistical inferences and predict the
characteristics of the entire population.
• It offers a pragmatic and practical approach to examining the features of
the whole population, which would otherwise be difficult to achieve
because studying the total population is expensive, time-consuming, and
often impossible.
• Market researchers use various sampling methods to collect samples from
a large population to acquire relevant insights.
• The best sampling strategy for research is determined by criteria such as
the purpose of the study, available resources (time and money), and
research hypothesis.
 What are sampling methods or sampling techniques?

Sampling methods or sampling techniques in research are statistical methods for selecting
a sample representative of the whole population to study the population’s characteristics.
Sampling methods serve as invaluable tools for researchers, enabling the collection of
meaningful data and facilitating analysis to identify distinctive features of the people.
Different sampling strategies can be used based on the characteristics of the population,
the study purpose, and the available resources.
In probability theory, the sample space comprises all
possible outcomes of a random experiment, while the
sample frame is the list or source guiding sample
selection in statistical research.
The sample represents the group of individuals
participating in the study, forming the basis for the
research findings.

Selecting the correct sample is critical to ensuring the

validity and reliability of any research; the sample
should be representative of the population.
Probability sampling: A sampling method in which each unit or element in
the population has an equal chance of being selected in the final sample. This
is called random sampling, emphasizing the random and non-zero probability
nature of selecting samples. Such a sampling technique ensures a more
representative and unbiased sample, enabling robust inferences about the
entire population.

Non-probability sampling: Another sampling method is non-probability

sampling, which involves collecting data conveniently through a non-random
selection based on predefined criteria. This offers a straightforward way to
gather data, although the resulting sample may or may not accurately
represent the entire population.
 What is probability sampling?
The probability sampling method is based on the probability theory, which means that the sample selection criteria
involve some random selection. The probability sampling method provides an equal opportunity for all elements or units
within the entire sample space to be chosen. While it can be labor-intensive and expensive, the advantage lies in its
ability to offer a more accurate representation of the population, thereby enhancing confidence in the inferences drawn
in the research.

Types of probability sampling

Various probability sampling methods exist, such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
and clustered sampling.

Simple random sampling: In simple random

sampling, each individual has an equal
probability of being chosen, and each selection
is independent of the others. Because the
choice is entirely based on chance, this is also
known as the method of chance selection. In
the simple random sampling method, the
sample frame comprises the entire population.
Systematic sampling: The systematic sampling approach involves
selecting units or elements at regular intervals from an ordered list of
the population. Because the starting point of this sampling method is
chosen at random, it is more convenient than essential random
sampling. For a better understanding, consider the following example.

Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling divides the population into

subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each
stratum in proportion to its size in the population. Stratified sampling
provides improved representation because each subgroup that
differs in significant ways is included in the final sample.
Clustered sampling: In this sampling method, the population is divided into clusters, and then a random sample of clusters
is included in the final sample. Clustered sampling, distinct from stratified sampling, involves subgroups (clusters) that
exhibit characteristics similar to the whole sample. In the case of small clusters, all members can be included in the final
sample, whereas for larger clusters, individuals within each cluster may be sampled using the sampling above methods. This
approach is referred to as multistage sampling. This sampling method is well-suited for large and widely distributed
populations; however, there is a potential risk of sample error because ensuring that the sampled clusters truly represent
the entire population can be challenging.
 Uses of probability sampling
Probability sampling methods find widespread use across diverse research disciplines because of their ability to yield
representative and unbiased samples. The advantages of employing probability sampling include the following:

Representativeness
Probability sampling assures that every element in the population has a non-zero chance of being included in the sample,
ensuring representativeness of the entire population and decreasing research bias to minimal to non-existent levels. The
researcher can acquire higher-quality data via probability sampling, increasing confidence in the conclusions.

Statistical inference
Statistical methods, like confidence intervals and hypothesis testing, depend on probability sampling to generalize findings
from a sample to the broader population. Probability sampling methods ensure unbiased representation, allowing inferences
about the population based on the characteristics of the sample.

Precision and reliability

The use of probability sampling improves the precision and reliability of study results. Because the probability of selecting
any single element/individual is known, the chance variations that may occur in non-probability sampling methods are
reduced, resulting in more dependable and precise estimations.
Generalizability
Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize study findings to the entire population from which they
were derived. The results produced through probability sampling methods are more likely to be applicable to the
larger population, laying the foundation for making broad predictions or recommendations.

Minimization of Selection Bias

By ensuring that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, probability
sampling lowers the possibility of selection bias. This reduces the impact of systematic errors that may occur in
non-probability sampling methods, where data may be skewed toward a specific demographic due to inadequate
representation of each segment of the population.
 What is non-probability sampling?

Non-probability sampling methods involve selecting individuals based on non-random

criteria, often relying on the researcher’s judgment or predefined criteria. While it is
easier and more economical, it tends to introduce sampling bias, resulting in weaker
inferences compared to probability sampling techniques in research.
Types of Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling methods are further classified as convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling,
purposive or judgmental sampling, and snowball sampling.

Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, individuals are recruited directly from the population based on the
accessibility and proximity to the researcher. It is a simple, inexpensive, and practical method of sample selection, yet
convenience sampling suffers from both sampling and selection bias due to a lack of appropriate population representation.
Consecutive sampling: Participants in consecutive sampling (or sequential sampling) are chosen based on their
availability and desire to participate in the study as they become available. This strategy entails sequentially recruiting
individuals who fulfill the researcher’s requirements.

Quota sampling: The selection of individuals in quota sampling is based on non-random selection criteria in which only
participants with certain traits or proportions that are representative of the population are included. Quota sampling
involves setting predetermined quotas for specific subgroups based on key demographics or other relevant
characteristics. This sampling method employs dividing the population into mutually exclusive subgroups and then
selecting sample units until the set quota is reached.
Purposive or judgmental sampling: In purposive sampling,
the researcher leverages expertise to select a sample relevant
to the study’s specific questions. This sampling method is
commonly applied in qualitative research, mainly when aiming
to understand a particular phenomenon, and is suitable for
smaller population sizes.

Snowball sampling: This sampling method is used when

accessing the population is challenging. It involves collecting
the sample through a chain-referral process, where each
recruited candidate aids in finding others. These candidates
share common traits, representing the targeted population.
This method is often used in qualitative research, particularly
when studying phenomena related to stigmatized or hidden
populations.
Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling approaches are employed in qualitative or exploratory research where the goal is to investigate
underlying population traits rather than generalizability. Non-probability sampling methods are also helpful for the
following purposes:

•Generating a hypothesis
In the initial stages of exploratory research, non-probability methods such as purposive or convenience allow researchers
to quickly gather information and generate hypothesis that helps build a future research plan.

•Qualitative research
Qualitative research is usually focused on understanding the depth and complexity of human experiences, behaviors, and
perspectives. Non-probability methods like purposive or snowball sampling are commonly used to select participants with
specific traits that are relevant to the research question.

•Convenience and pragmatism

Non-probability sampling methods are valuable when resource and time are limited or when preliminary data is required to
test the pilot study. For example, conducting a survey at a local shopping mall to gather opinions on a consumer product
due to the ease of access to potential participants.