Life processes

May 26, 2025

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1 Introduction

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Living things have special things about them that make them different from non-living things,
such as breathing, growing, requiring nutrition, reproduction, responding to stimuli, etc. There
are certain vital processes that keep repairing and maintaining their structures. These processes

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continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing any action. These processes are
essential for all living organisms, including plants and animals. These life processes are nutrition,
photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.

1.1 Life Process

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Life processes are the essential activities carried out by living organisms to maintain their existence
and sustain life. These processes include:

1. Nutrition: The process of obtaining and consuming food materials to provide energy and
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necessary nutrients for growth, repair, and maintenance.

2. Respiration: The process by which organisms take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide,
usually to produce energy through the oxidation of organic molecules like glucose.
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3. Transportation: The movement of materials such as nutrients, gases, and wastes within an
organism or between different parts of an organism.

4. Excretion: The removal of metabolic waste products, such as carbon dioxide, water, and
nitrogenous wastes, from the body.

5. Reproduction: The process by which organisms produce new individual organisms (off-
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spring), ensuring the continuation of their species.

6. Growth:The increase in size or number of cells in an organism, resulting in an increase in

overall body size or mass.

7. Response to stimuli : The ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in their
environment, which helps them adapt and survive.

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1.2 Questions
1/ Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms
like humans?
Ans : Diffusion is the fundamental process to gas exchange at the cellular level, proves insufficient
to meet the oxygen demands of multicellular organisms like humans due to factors such as the sig-
nificant distance between outer environments and innermost cells, resulting in decreased diffusion
rates over long distances. Additionally, the lower surface area to volume ratio in multicellular or-
ganisms limits the effectiveness of diffusion alone in supplying oxygen to all cells. To overcome
these limitations, multicellular organisms have evolved specialized respiratory structures, such as

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lungs in humans, and transport systems like the cardiovascular system, which provide a large sur-
face area for gas exchange and facilitate rapid distribution of oxygen to all cells, ensuring the
efficient meeting of metabolic demands.

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2/ What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?
Ans : Determining whether something is alive relies on several key criteria: respiration, metabolism,
growth, response to stimuli, reproduction, and adaptation. Living organisms take in oxygen and re-
lease carbon dioxide in a respiration process. They undergo metabolic processes to obtain energy

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and maintain internal balance, while also growing in size or number of cells over time. Living or-
ganisms respond to stimuli from their environment, reproduce to produce offspring, and can adapt
to changes over generations through evolution. These criteria collectively define the characteristics
of life, distinguishing living organisms from non-living entities
3/ What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?
Ans : Outside raw materials, including nutrients, oxygen, water, and environmental cues like light
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and temperature, are essential for organisms’ survival and functioning. They provide energy, build-
ing blocks for growth and repair, facilitate gas exchange. Additionally, some organisms utilize
external materials for protection and support. Overall, these raw materials play critical roles in
sustaining life and enabling adaptation to diverse environments.
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4/ What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans: Life processes such as respiration, metabolism, transportation, reproduction and excretion are
essential for maintaining life.
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2 Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain and utilize nutrients from their environment to
sustain life. Nutrients are substances essential for growth, maintenance, repair, and energy produc-
tion within an organism. There are two main types of nutrition:
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1. Autotrophic nutrition: Autotrophic organisms, such as plants, algae, and some bacteria, are
capable of synthesizing organic molecules from inorganic sources. They utilize energy from
sunlight (photosynthesis) or inorganic chemicals (chemosynthesis) to convert carbon dioxide
and water into carbohydrates, which serve as their primary source of energy. Autotrophic
nutrition forms the foundation of food chains, as autotrophs provide energy and nutrients for
heterotrophic organisms.

2. Heterotrophic nutrition: Heterotrophic organisms, including animals, fungi, and some

bacteria, cannot produce organic molecules from inorganic sources and must obtain them
from other organisms. They acquire nutrients by consuming organic matter produced by au-
totrophs or other heterotrophs. Heterotrophic nutrition can be further classified into different
types based on the source and manner of obtaining nutrients:

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 (a) Herbivores: Obtain nutrients by consuming plant material.
(b) Carnivores: Obtain nutrients by consuming other animals.
(c) Omnivores: Consume both plant and animal material.
(d) Detritivores: Feed on decaying organic matter.
(e) Parasites: Obtain nutrients from a host organism, often without immediately killing it.
(f) Saprotrophs: Decompose dead organic matter and absorb nutrients from the environ-
ment.

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These types of nutrition represent the diverse strategies organisms employ to obtain the nu-
trients necessary for their survival and growth.

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2.1 Autotrophic Nutrition
If an organism can nourish itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of
nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition.

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• Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs, and the neutrition
process is called photosynthesis.

• Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs, and the neutri-
tion process is called chemosynthesis.
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2.1.1 Photosynthesis
In photosynthesis, autotrophic organisms, such as plants, algae, and some bacteria, use light energy
to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into organic molecules, primarily glucose, and
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oxygen (O2) as a byproduct. This process takes place in specialized organelles called chloroplasts,
which contain chlorophyll, a pigment that absorbs light energy. During photosynthesis, light energy
is used to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen ions. Hydrogen is then used to reduce
carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose. The oxygen released during photosynthesis
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is a byproduct and is released into the atmosphere. Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and
stomata to facilitate the intake of carbon dioxide.
The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

2.1.2 Stomata
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Stomata are small pores found on the surfaces of plant

leaves, stems, and other aerial parts. They play a cru-
cial role in the exchange of gases, such as carbon diox-
ide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), as well as water vapor, be-
tween the plant and its environment. Each stoma is sur-
rounded by a pair of specialized cells called guard cells,
which control the opening and closing of the pore.
The water content of the guard cells is responsi-
ble for their function. When the guard cells are turgid
(swollen with water), they curve away from each other,

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causing the stomatal pore to open. This allows for the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmo-
sphere, which is essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants produce energy-rich
carbohydrates. Additionally, during photosynthesis, oxygen is released as a byproduct through the
stomata. Conversely, when the guard cells lose turgidity, they become flaccid and close the stomatal
pore, reducing water loss through transpiration and preventing the entry of pathogens.

2.2 Heterotrophic nutrition

Heterotrophic nutrition is a mode of nutrition where organisms obtain their organic nutrients from
other organisms. In simple terms, they rely on external sources for their food rather than producing

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it themselves through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
There are various types of heterotrophic nutrition:

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• Holozoic Nutrition: This is the most common type among animals, where organisms ingest
solid organic material which is then broken down and digested internally. Humans and most
other animals are examples of organisms with holozoic nutrition.
• Saprophytic Nutrition: Organisms that feed on dead and decaying matter are termed sapro-

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phytes. They secrete enzymes onto the organic matter externally and then absorb the digested
nutrients. Fungi and many bacteria exhibit saprophytic nutrition.
• Parasitic Nutrition: Parasites obtain their nutrients from a living host organism, often harm-
ing the host in the process. They can be internal or external parasites. Examples include
tapeworms, ticks, and many types of bacteria.
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• Predatory Nutrition: Predators actively hunt and consume other organisms for their nutri-
ents. This is common among carnivorous animals, such as lions or wolves.
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• Cannibalistic Nutrition: Some organisms consume members of their own species. This can
occur for various reasons such as competition or as part of the life cycle.

2.2.1 Nutrition in Amoeba

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Amoeba, being a single-celled organism, doesn’t

have a digestive system like more complex an-
imals. Instead, it obtains its nutrition through
a process called phagocytosis. Here’s how it
works:
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• Amoeba extends its pseudopodia around its

prey, such as bacteria, algae, or other or-
ganic matter, forming a food vacuole.
• Once the prey is enclosed in the food vac-
uole, the amoeba secretes digestive en-
zymes into the vacuole. These enzymes
break down the prey into smaller molecules
that the amoeba can absorb.
• The small molecules, such as amino acids,
sugars, and other nutrients, are absorbed directly through the cell membrane into the
amoeba’s cytoplasm.

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 • Waste products resulting from digestion are
expelled from the cell through exocytosis.

In terms of nutrition, amoeba can obtain various nutrients from its prey, including carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and other essential nutrients necessary for its growth and survival.

2.2.2 Nutrition in Paramoecium

Paramecium, like Amoeba, is a single-celled or-
ganism which exhibits holozoic nutrition. It ob-

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tains its nutrition through several processes:

• Paramecium uses hair-like structures called

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cilia to sweep food particles, such as bacte-
ria, algae, and other small organisms, into
its oral groove.

• Once food particles are swept into the oral

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groove, they enter a funnel-shaped struc-
ture called the gullet.

• The gullet pinches off, forming a food vac-

uole containing the ingested food particles.
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• Digestive enzymes are secreted into the
food vacuole to break down the food par-
ticles into smaller molecules.
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• The small molecules, such as amino acids,
sugars, and other nutrients resulting from digestion, are absorbed across the membrane of the
food vacuole into the cytoplasm.

• Waste products are eliminated from the cell

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through a structure called the anal pore.

2.2.3 Nutrition in Humans

• Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food. The
digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together
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function to nourish the body.

• There are five stages in human nutrition; Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and
Excretion.
Ingestion : Humans consume food containing various nutrients, including carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Digestion : Food undergoes mechanical and chemical digestion in the alimentary canal.
Mechanical digestion involves chewing and churning of food by stomach muscles. Chemi-
cal digestion involves the action of enzymes to break down complex molecules into simpler
forms that can be absorbed.
Absorption : Nutrients are absorbed primarily in the small intestine, although some absorp-
tion also occurs in the stomach and large intestine. Carbohydrates are broken down into

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 glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Other nutrients,
such as vitamins, minerals, and water, are absorbed along with these basic components.
Assimilation : Glucose is the primary source of energy for cells. It is used immediately or
stored in the liver and muscles. Amino acids are used to build and repair tissues, synthesize
enzymes and hormones, and can also be used for energy if needed. Fatty acids are used for
energy, as structural components of cell membranes, and for the synthesis of hormones.
Excretion : Waste products, such as carbon dioxide, urea, and excess minerals, are elimi-
nated from the body through processes like respiration, urination, and defecation.

2.2.4 Human digestive system

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• Alimentary Canal : The alimentary canal, also known as the digestive tract or gastrointesti-
nal (GI) tract, is a long tube that extends from the mouth to the anus and is responsible for
the digestion and absorption of food. The major parts of the alimentary canal:

– Mouth : The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is ingested, chewed (mas-
ticated), and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes that start breaking down car-
bohydrates. The saliva contains an enzymes called salivary amylase that breaks down
starch which is a complex form of sugar or glucose. The food is mixed thoroughly with
saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing by the tongue.

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 – Oesophagus : The Oesophagus is a muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to
the stomach through a series of contractions called peristalsis. It is about 25 cm long
and transport food and fluid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.
– Stomach : The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure. It receives food from
the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end. Gastric
glands present in the wall of the stomach release hydrochloric acid, an enzyme called
pepsin, and [Link] hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium that facilitates the
action of the enzyme pepsin and kill bacteria. Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme. The
mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under normal

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conditions. The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which
releases it in small amounts into the small intestine.
– Small Intestine: The small intestine is where most digestion and absorption of nutrients

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occur. Enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver aid in digesting carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats. Herbivores, which eat grass containing cellulose, have longer small
intestines to facilitate its digestion. Carnivores like tigers have shorter small intestines
as meat is easier to digest. The bile salts emulsify fat by acting on large fat globules to

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break them into smaller globules. This increases the efficiency of pancreatic enzymes.
The food entering the small intestine is acidic. It is made alkaline by the action of bile
juice. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase
for breaking down emulsified fats. The walls of the small intestine contain glands that
secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins to amino
acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The
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inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi. This
villi Increases the surface area for absorption. The villi are richly supplied with blood
vessels that take the absorbed food to each and every cell of the body. The unabsorbed
food is sent into the large intestine where its wall absorbs more water from this material.
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– Large Intestine : The large intestine is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes
from undigested food by small intestine. They have more villi which absorb water from
the food material. The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus. The
exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
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3 Respiration
The process by which organisms take
in oxygen and release carbon diox-
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ide, usually to produce energy from

the food. The most common form
of respiration in which oxygen is
used to break down glucose into en-
ergy, carbon dioxide, and water is
called Aerobic respiration. But in
the absence of oxygen the break-
down of glucose into energy and var-
ious byproducts such as lactic acid or
ethanol is called Anaerobic respira-
tion. In all cases, the first step is the
breakdown of glucose, a six-carbon

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molecule, into a three-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm.
In Anaerobic respiration, The pyruvate may be converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This pro-
cess takes place in yeast during fermentation. In Aerobic respiration, The breakdown of pyruvate
using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria. This process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate
molecule to give three molecules of carbon dioxide and byproduct water. The release of energy in
this aerobic process is a lot greater than in the anaerobic process. The energy released during cel-
lular respiration is immediately used to synthesise a molecule called ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate
) which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell.
Sometimes, when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the breakdown
of pyruvate is taken. Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is also a three-carbon

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molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.
Normally during day time, the rate of photosynthesis is much more than the rate of respiration.

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So, carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used up for photosynthesis hence carbon dioxide
is not released. Instead, oxygen release is the major event at this time. At night, when there is no
photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity going on.
Terrestrial animals can breathe oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in water need to
use the oxygen dissolved in water. Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to

seen in terrestrial organisms.

Aerobic respiration
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the amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that

1. Takes place in the presence of oxygen.

2. Complete breakdown of food occurs in it.
Anaerobic respiration
1. Takes place in the absence of oxygen.
2. Incomplete breakdown of food occurs in it.
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3. The end products are Carbon dioxide and 3. The end products are lactic acid or ethanol
water. and Carbon dioxide.
4. It takes place in the cytoplasm and inside 4. It takes place in the cytoplasm only.
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mitochondria.
5. More energy is released. 5. Less energy is released.

3.1 Human respiratory system:

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3.1.1 Human digestive system

The respiratory route of air in the respiratory tract of humans is the

Nostrils →
− pharynx →
− larynx →
− trachea →
− alveoli.

he process of respiration starts when air enters through the nose. The nostrils is filtered by fine hairs
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the incoming air, removing dust, pollen, and other particles.

After passing through the nostrils, air travels down the pharynx, which serves as a common
pathway for both air and food. Below the pharynx is the larynx, which helps to prevent food from
entering the trachea. The trachea is a tube made of cartilage rings that carries air from the larynx to
the lungs. Rings of cartilage are present in the trachea which ensure that the air passage does not
collapse. It branches into two bronchi, one leading to each lung. The bronchi further divide into
smaller tubes called bronchioles.

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The lungs are the main organs of respiration. They are located in the chest cavity and are protected
by the rib cage. Each lung is divided into lobes and contains millions of alveoli where gas exchange
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occurs. The alveoli are small air sacs( balloon-like structure) where the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide takes place. The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take
place. The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood vessels. The blood brings
carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar
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air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all the cells in the
body. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a
residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon
dioxide to be released. In human beings, the respiratory pigment is hemoglobin which has a very
high affinity for oxygen. This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is
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more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our
blood.

4 Transportation
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4.1 Transportation in Human Beings

Transportation in human beings refers to the circulation of substances such as oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products throughout the body. This process is primarily facilitated by the
cardiovascular system, which consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Blood consists of
a fluid medium called plasma in which the cells are suspended. Plasma transports food, carbon
dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells. We
thus need a pumping organ (heart) to push blood around the body, a network of tubes (arteries and
veins) to reach all the tissues and a system in place (platelets) to ensure that this network can be
repaired if damaged.

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4.1.1 Heart
The heart is a muscular organ
responsible for pumping blood
throughout the body. It con-
sists of four chambers: two
atriums (upper chambers) and
two ventricles (lower cham-
bers). The right side of
the heart pumps deoxygenated

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blood to the lungs for oxygena-
tion, while the left side pumps
oxygenated blood to the rest of

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the body.
oxygenated blood from the
lungs comes to the thin-walled
upper chamber of the heart on

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the left, the left atrium. The left
atrium relaxes when it is col-
lecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that
the blood is transferred to it. When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is
pumped out to the body.
De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right, the right atrium,
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as it relaxes. As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle,
dilates. This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the lungs for oxygena-
tion.
The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep oxygenated and
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deoxygenated blood from mixing. Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to
the body. This is useful in animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which
constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature.
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In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on the tem-
perature in the environment. Such
animals, like amphibians and many reptiles,
have three-chambered hearts and tolerate some
mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated
blood streams.
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Fishes, on the other hand, have only two

chambers to their hearts, and the blood is pumped
to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes di-
rectly to the rest of the body.

4.1.2 Double circulatory system

The oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to
the heart, which is pumped again into different
parts of the body by the heart. Thus, the blood
passed twice through the heart making one com-
plete round through the body, i.e., once through

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the right half in the form of deoxygenated blood
and once through the left half in the form of oxy-
genated blood.

4.1.3 Blood Pressure

• Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer.

• The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure.

• This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.

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• The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

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• High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles,
which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding

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4.1.4 The tubes – blood vessels
Artery Vein
1. Have thick, elastic, muscular walls. 1. Have thin, non-elastic walls.
2. Lumen is narrow. 2. Lumen is wide.
3. Carry blood from the heart to all body parts. 3. Carry blood from all body parts to the heart.
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4. Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary 4. Carry deoxygenated blood (except
artery). pulmonary vein).
5. Blood pressure is high. 5. Blood pressure is low.
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4.2 Maintenance by platelets
In case of any leakage, the blood has platelet cells that circulate around the body and plug these
leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury. Platelets contain antimicrobial proteins
and peptides that can help to kill pathogens and prevent infections.
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4.2.1 Lymph
Lymph or tissue fluid is a colorless fluid that is similar in composition to blood plasma but it con-
tains less protein. It is derived from interstitial fluid, which is the fluid that surrounds cells and
tissues. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces, which join to form
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large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat
from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood. Blockage of
the lymphatic system will lead to water retention and poor fat absorption in the body.

Blood Lymph
1. Red in color. 1. Colorless.
2. RBCs are present. 2. RBCs are absent.
3. Nutritive substances are more. 3. Nutritive substances are less.
4. Contains more oxygen. 4. Contains less oxygen.
5. Contains more protein. 5. Contains less protein.
6. Metabolic wastes and Carbon dioxide are in 6. Both are more than blood.
normal amounts.

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Transport in Plants
Raw Material Uptake
• Soil is the primary source of minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sulfur, Iron, Manganese and other nutrients.

• These materials are absorbed through roots, which are in direct contact with the soil. These
minerals are dissolved in water and absorbed in the form of ions.

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Need for Transport System
In small or simple plants where the distance between leaves and roots is minimal, diffusion is

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sufficient to transport water, minerals, and nutrients. However, as plants grow larger and more
complex, the distances between various organs increase significantly, making diffusion alone an
inefficient means of transport. In such cases, a specialized and well-organized transport system
becomes essential to ensure the efficient movement of water, minerals from the roots to the leaves,

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and food from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Transport Pathways
• Two independent conducting tissues:
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– Xylem – transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
– Phloem – transports food (products of photosynthesis) from leaves to other parts.

Transport of Water (Xylem)

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• Xylem consists of interconnected vessels and tracheids.

• Root cells actively take up ions, creating an osmotic gradient that causes water to enter the
roots.
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• This creates root pressure that pushes water upwards.

• During the day, transpiration pull is the main driving force:

– Water evaporates from stomata.

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– Creates suction that pulls water from roots through xylem.

– Known as the transpiration pull.

• Functions of Transpiration:

– Helps in absorption and upward movement of water and minerals.

– Regulates plant temperature.

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Transport of Food (Phloem)

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• Products of photosynthesis move through phloem.

• Process is called translocation.

• Phloem also transportsugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, pro-
teins and inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron.
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• Food is delivered to:

– Storage organs (roots, fruits, seeds)

– Growing regions of the plant
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• Takes place in sieve tubes with help from companion cells.

• Movement is in both directions – upward and downward.

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• Unlike xylem, phloem transport requires energy.

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 Feature Xylem Phloem
Function Conducts water and minerals Transports food from leaves
from roots to all parts of the to other parts of the plant
plant
Direction of flow Unidirectional (only upward) Bidirectional (both upward
and downward)
Cell types Tracheids, vessels, xylem Sieve tubes, companion cells,
parenchyma, xylem fibres phloem parenchyma, phloem
fibres
Nature of cells Mostly dead cells (except Mostly living cells (except fi-

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parenchyma) bres)
Wall thickness Thick and lignified cell walls Thin cell walls

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Energy used Passive process (no energy Active process (energy is
used) used for translocation)

Excretion

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Excretion is the biological process through which organisms eliminate harmful metabolic wastes
from their bodies. While organisms like plants and animals expel gaseous waste such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen during respiration and photosynthesis, other metabolic reactions, especially
those involving proteins and nucleic acids, produce nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid.
These waste materials must be efficiently removed to maintain internal balance and prevent toxicity.
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In unicellular organisms, waste removal is relatively simple. These organisms use diffusion
to eliminate waste products directly from their cell surface into the surrounding water. However,
in multicellular organisms, including humans, more complex systems are required for effective
excretion due to the complexity and size of their bodies.
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5.5.1 Excretion in Human Beings

The human excretory system consists of:
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• Two kidneys

• Two ureters

• One urinary bladder

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• One urethra

The kidneys, located in the abdominal cavity on either side of the backbone, are the primary
organs of excretion. Their main role is to filter blood and form urine, which contains water, urea,
uric acid, and other dissolved waste products.
Each kidney contains millions of tiny filtration units called nephrons. A nephron includes a
glomerulus (a network of thin-walled capillaries) and a Bowman’s capsule (a cup-shaped struc-
ture that surrounds the glomerulus). Blood is filtered in the glomerulus, and the filtrate enters the
Bowman’s capsule. As this filtrate travels through the nephron tubules, essential substances like
glucose, amino acids, salts, and a significant amount of water are reabsorbed into the blood.
Only the remaining waste and excess water form urine.

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 The formed urine flows from the kidneys through ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is
stored temporarily. When the bladder is full, it signals the brain, creating the urge to urinate. Urine
is then expelled through the urethra. The muscular bladder is under nervous control, allowing
voluntary control over urination in most situations.
In conclusion, excretion is vital for maintaining the body’s internal environment. The human ex-
cretory system efficiently manages waste removal, fluid balance, and the regulation of important
biochemical substances.

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Figure 1: Excretory system in human beings Figure 2: Structure of a nephron
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Excretion in Plants
Plants have unique strategies for excretion that differ significantly from those used by animals. The
following points highlight the main methods of excretion in plants:
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1. Excretion of Oxygen:

• Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is considered a waste product. It is released

through stomata in leaves into the surrounding air.

2. Removal of Carbon Dioxide:

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• Carbon dioxide, a by-product of respiration, is also released through stomata and lenticels.

3. Excess Water Removal:

• Plants lose excess water through the process of transpiration, mainly from leaves via
stomata.

4. Use of Dead Tissues:

• Many plant tissues consist of dead cells, which help in storing wastes without harming
the plant.

5. Shedding of Plant Parts:

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 • Plants often accumulate waste in parts like leaves, bark, and fruits.
• These parts are eventually shed off, helping in the removal of waste materials.

6. Storage in Vacuoles:

• Wastes such as tannins, oils, and latex are stored in the vacuoles of plant cells.

7. Storage as Resins and Gums:

• Certain waste products are stored in the form of resins and gums, especially in the old
xylem tissues.

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8. Excretion into Soil:

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• Some plants excrete waste substances directly into the surrounding soil through roots.

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