Chapter -1: Introduction

Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of

cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers.
Fiber reinforced concrete are of different types and properties with many advantages.
Continuous meshes, woven fabrics and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete
fibers.

Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristics properties.

They can be circular or flat. The fiber is often described by a convenient parameter called
“aspect ratio”. The aspect ratio of the fiber is the ratio of its length to its diameter.
Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150.

Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and
randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural
fibers. Within these different fibers that character of fiber reinforced concrete changes with
varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries, distribution, orientation and densities.

Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete.
Fiber-reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements,
but can be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pliers, foundations etc)
either alone or with hand-tied rebar’s

Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass or “plastic” fibers) is less
expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. Shape,
dimension and length of fiber are important. A thin and short fiber, for example short hair-
shaped glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after pouring the concrete (reduces
cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the concrete tensile strength.

1
1.1 Effect of Fibers in Concrete:-

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying
shrinkage cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding
of water. Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter resistance in
concrete. Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, so it cannot
replace moment resisting or structural steel reinforcement. Some fibers reduce the strength
of concrete.

The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total
volume of the composite (concrete and fibers) termed volume fraction (VF). VF typically
ranges from 0.1 to 3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its
diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the
calculation of aspect ratio.

If the modulus of elasticity of the fiber is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder),
they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increase in the
aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix.
However, fibers which are too long tend to “ball” in the mix and create workability
problems.

Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact
resistance of concrete materials. This finding is very important since traditionally people
think the ductility increases when concrete reinforced with fibers. The results also pointed
out that the micro fibers is better in impact resistance compared with the longer fibers.

1.2 Necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete:-

1. It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.

2. It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
3. It increases the durability of the concrete.
4. Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep, while the same is
not true for most resins. Therefore, the orientation and volume of fibers have a significant
influence on the creep performance of rebar’s/tendons.
5. Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts as the
strengthening fiber and the concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative that the behavior
under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar so that the differential deformations of
concrete and the reinforcement are minimized.
2
6. It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and uniformly dispersed
fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would substantially improve its static and
dynamic properties.

1.3 Factors Affecting Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete:-

Fiber reinforced concrete is the composite material containing fibers in the cement matrix in
an orderly manner or randomly distributed manner. Its properties would obviously, depends
upon the efficient transfer of stress between matrix and the fibers. The factors are briefly
discussed below:

1. Relative Fiber Matrix Stiffness:-

The modulus of elasticity of matrix must be much lower than that of fiber for efficient stress
transfer. Low modulus of fiber such as nylons and polypropylene are, therefore, unlikely to
give strength improvement, but the help in the absorption of large energy and therefore,
impart greater degree of toughness and resistance to impart. High modulus fibers such as
steel, glass and carbon impart strength and stiffness to the composite.

Interfacial bond between the matrix and the fiber also determine the effectiveness of stress
transfer, from the matrix to the fiber. A good bond is essential for improving tensile strength
of the composite.

2. Volume of Fibers:-

The strength of the composite largely depends on the quantity of fibers used in it. Fig 1 and
2 show the effect of volume on the toughness and strength. It can see from Fig 1 that the
increase in the volume of fibers, increase approximately linearly, the tensile strength and
toughness of the composite. Use of higher percentage of fiber is likely to cause segregation
and harshness of concrete and mortar.

3
Fig.1: Effect of volume of fibers in flexure

4
 Fig.2: Effect of volume of fibers in tension

3. Aspect Ratio of the Fiber:-

Another important factor which influences the properties and behavior of the composite is
the aspect ratio of the fiber. It has been reported that up to aspect ratio of 75, increase on
the aspect ratio increases the ultimate concrete linearly. Beyond 75, relative strength and
toughness is reduced. Table-1 shows the effect of aspect ratio on strength andtoughness.

5
 Table-1: Aspect ratio of the fiber:-

Type of concrete Aspect ratio Relative strength Relative toughness

Plain concrete 0 1 1

With 25 1.5 2.0

Randomly 50 1.6 8.0

Dispersed fibers 75 1.7 10.5

100 1.5 8.5

4. Orientation of Fibers:

One of the differences between conventional reinforcement and fiber reinforcement is

that in conventional reinforcement, bars are oriented in the direction desired while fibers are
randomly oriented. To see the effect of randomness, mortar specimens reinforcedwith 0.5%
volume of fibers were tested. In one set specimens, fibers were aligned in the direction of the
load, in another in the direction perpendicular to that of the load, and in the third randomly
distributed.
It was observed that the fibers aligned parallel to the applied load offered more tensile
strength and toughness than randomly distributed or perpendicular fibers.

5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete:

Incorporation of steel fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation adversely
affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged external vibration fails to compact
the concrete. The fiber volume at which this situation is reached depends on the length and
diameter of the fiber.
Another consequence of poor workability is non-uniform distribution of the fibers.
Generally, the workability and compaction standard of the mix is improved through
increased water/ cement ratio or by the use of some kind of water reducing admixtures.

6
 6. Size of Coarse Aggregate:

Maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10mm, to avoid appreciable
reduction in strength of the composite. Fibers also in effect, act as aggregate. Although they
have a simple geometry, their influence on the properties of fresh concrete is complex. The
inter-particle friction between fibers and between fibers and aggregates controls the
orientation and distribution of the fibers and consequently the properties of the composite.
Friction reducing admixtures and admixtures that improve the cohesiveness of the mix can
significantly improve the mix.

7. Mixing:

Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions to avoid balling of fibers,
segregation and in general the difficulty of mixing the materials uniformly. Increase in
the aspect ratio, volume percentage and size and quantity of coarse aggregate intensify
the difficulties and balling tendency. Steel fiber content in excess of 2% by volume and
aspect ratio of more than 100 are difficult to mix.

It is important that the fibers are dispersed uniformly throughout the mix; this can be done
by the addition of the fibers before the water is added. When mixing in a laboratory mixer,
introducing the fibers through a wire mesh basket will help even distribution of fibers. For
field use, other suitable methods must be adopted.

1.4 Different Types of Fiber Reinforced Concrete:-

Following are the different type of fibers generally used in the construction industries.

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar & concrete

3. GFRC Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

4. Asbestos Fibers

5. Carbon Fibers
6. Organic Fibers

7
1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete:

A know of steel fiber types are available as reinforcement. Round steel fiber the commonly
used type are produced by cutting round wire in to short length. The typical diameter lies in
the range of 0.25 to 0.75mm. Steel fibers having a rectangular c/s are produced by silting the
sheets about 0.25mm thick.

Fiber made from mild steel drawn wire. Conforming to IS:280-1976 with the diameter of
wire varying from 0.3 to 0.5mm have been practically used in India.

Round steel fibers are produced by cutting or chopping the wire, flat sheet fibers having a
typical c/s ranging from 0.15 to 0.41mm in thickness and 0.25 to 0.90mm in width are
produced by silting flat sheets.

Deformed fiber, which are loosely bounded with water-soluble glue in the form of a bundle
are also available. Since individual fibers tend to cluster together, their uniform distribution
in the matrix is often difficult. This may be avoided by adding fibers bundles, which
separate during the mixing process.

2. Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) cement mortar and concrete:

Polypropylene is one of the cheapest & abundantly available polymers polypropylene fibers
are resistant to most chemical & it would be cementations matrix which would deteriorate
first under aggressive chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165 degrees
centigrade). So that a working temp. As (100 degree centigrade) may be sustained for short
periods without detriment to fiber properties.

Polypropylene fibers being hydrophobic can be easily mixed as they do not need lengthy
contact during mixing and only need to be evenly distressed in the mix.

Polypropylene short fibers in small volume fractions between 0.5- 15 commercially used
in concrete.

3. GFRC – Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete:

Glass fiber is made up from 200-400 individual filaments which are lightly bonded to make
up a stand. These stands can be chopped into various lengths, or combined to make cloth
mat or tape. Using the conventional mixing techniques for normal concrete it is not possible
to mix more than about 2% (by volume) of fibers of a length of 25mm.
8
 The major appliance of glass fiber has been in reinforcing the cement or mortar matrices
used in the production of thin-sheet products. The commonly used verities of glass fibers are
e-glass used. In the reinforced of plastics & AR glass E-glass has inadequate resistance to
alkalis present in Portland cement where AR-glass has improved alkali resistant
characteristics. Sometimes polymers are also added in the mixes to improve some physical
properties such as moisture movement.

4. Asbestos Fibers:

The naturally available inexpensive mineral fiber, asbestos, has been successfully combined
with Portland cement paste to form a widely used product called asbestos cement. Asbestos
fibers here thermal mechanical & chemical resistance making them suitable for sheet
product pipes, tiles and corrugated roofing elements. Asbestos cement board is
approximately two or four times that of unreinforced matrix. However, due to relatively
short length (10mm) the fiber have low impact strength.

5. Carbon Fibers:

Carbon fibers from the most recent & probability the most spectacular addition to the range
of fiber available for commercial use. Carbon fiber comes under the very high modulus of
elasticity and flexural strength. These are expansive. Their strength & stiffness
characteristics have been found to be superior even to those of steel. But they are more
vulnerable to damage than even glass fiber, and hence are generally treated with resign
coating.

6. Organic Fibers:

Organic fiber such as polypropylene or natural fiber may be chemically more inert than
either steel or glass fibers. They are also cheaper, especially if natural. A large volume of
vegetable fiber may be used to obtain a multiple cracking composite. The problem of mixing
and uniform dispersion may be solved by adding a super plasticizer.

9
 Chapter-2: Literature Review

2.1 OVERVIEW:-

This chapter deals with various research works done on fiber reinforced concrete
including CFRC. The properties of various fibers were studied and the advantages of
coconut fiber over other fibers were highlighted to justify its selection in this research
work.

2.2 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Among the high-performance materials, fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is gradually

gaining acceptance from civil engineers. In recent years, research and development of
fibers and matrix materials and fabrication process related to construction industry have
grown rapidly. Their advantages over other construction materials are their high tensile
strength to weight ratio, ability to be molded into various shapes and potential resistance
to environmental conditions, resulting in potentially low maintenance cost. These
properties make FRC composite a good alternative for innovative construction. Their
application in construction includes both upgrading existing structures and building
new ones, which can apply to various types of structure, for example offshore
platforms, buildings and bridges (Thou, 2005)

2.3 Coconut Fiber Reinforced Concrete:-

(Bhatia, 2001) studied the usefulness of fiber reinforced concrete in various civil
engineering applications. Fibers include steel fiber, natural fibers and synthetic fibers-
each of which lends varying properties to the concrete. The study revealed that the
fibrous material increases the structural integrity. These studies made us adopt natural
fibers which are abundantly available and cheap.

(Chow et al., 2012) studied the viability of using coconut-fiber ropes as vertical
reinforcement in mortar-free low cost housing in earth quake prone regions. The rope
Anchorage is achieved by embedding it in the foundation and top tie-beams. The bond
between the rope and the concrete plays an important role in the stability of the
structure and the rope tensile strength is also found to be fairly high. The rope tension
generated due to earthquake loading should be less than both the pull out force and the

10
rope tensile load to avoid the structure collapse. The study concluded that the pull out
energy increases with an increase in embedment length, rope diameter, cement and
fiber content in the matrix.

(Li et al., 2007) studied fiber volume fraction by surface treatment with a wetting agent
for coir mesh reinforced mortar using non-woven coir mesh matting. They performed a
four-point bending test and concluded that cementations composites,reinforced by three
layers of coir mesh with a low fiber content of 1.8%, resulted in 40% improvement in
flexural strength compared to conventional concrete. The composites were found to be
25 times stronger in flexural toughness and about 20 times higher in flexural ductility.
To the best knowledge of authors the only research work on static CFRC properties is
the test done on concrete reinforced with coir fiber of length 4 cm. With regard to
dynamic properties of CFRC, no study has been reported yet. Dynamic tests had been
performed only for concrete reinforced by other fibers, e.g. polyolefin fibers or rubber
scrap. To reveal the consequence of fiber length for CFRC properties, thorough
investigations involving more fiber lengths and other parameters are required in order
to arrive at reliable conclusions. The knowledge of static and dynamic properties of
CFRC is essential to understand the potential of such concrete in cheap housing in earth
quake prone regions. But the scope of which requires stringent investigations CFRC
blocks are used as pavement materials in parking areas to avoid shrinkage crack. The
high crack resistance offered by coconut fiber made us adopts coconut fiber reinforced
concrete.

(Reis, 2006) performed third-point loading tests on concrete reinforced with coconut,
sugarcane biogases and banana fibers to investigate the flexural strength, fracture
toughness and fracture energy. The study revealed that fracture, toughness and energy
of coconut fiber reinforced concrete were the highest compared to other natural fibers
with an increase in flexural strength of up to 25%.The advantages of coconut fiber
over other natural fibers made us conclude to use coconut fiber as the reinforcement
material in our project.
(Asasutjarit et al., (2006) determined the physical (density, moisture content, water
absorption and thickness swelling), mechanical (modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rupture and internal bond) and thermal properties of coir-based light weight cement
board after 28 days of hydration. The physical and mechanical properties were
measured by Japanese Industrial Standard JIS A 5908-1994 and the thermal properties
using JIS R 2618. The parameters studied were fiber length, coir pre-treatment and
mixture ratio. 5 cm long boiled and washed fibers with the optimum cement: fiber:
water weight ratio of 2:1:2 gave the highest modulus of rupture and internal bond
amongst the tested specimens. The board also had a thermal conductivity lower than
other commercial flake board composite. This paper made us choose 5cm fiber
length after proper treatment of the fiber for the removal of the coir dust.

11
(Liu et al., 2011) studied the influence of 1%, 2%, 3% and 5% at fiber lengths of 2.5,5
and 7.5 cm on properties of concrete. For a proper analysis the properties of plain
cement concrete was used as reference. It was seen that damping of CFRC beams
increases with the increase in fiber content. It was observed that CFRC with a fiber
length of 5 cm and fiber content of 5% produced the best results. In this study the
optimum percent of coconut fiber added was 5%, which made us to adopt addition of
4%, 5% and 6% coconut fiber by weight of cement in our research work.

(Cellaret al., 2005) investigated the shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams
strengthened by the attachment of different configurations and quantities of carbon
fibers. The study revealed that the strengthening by using carbon fibers increased the
resistance to shear and also spoiling of concrete.

The next chapter is methodology which gives a brief idea about the overall aspects of
this research.

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 Chapter - 3: Experiments Performed

Experiment 1

Aim: To determine fineness modulus of fine aggregate.

Apparatus: Standard Sieves, Mechanical Sieve Shaker.

Figure 3 - IS Sieves.

Reference Standard: As Per IS: 383 [2]

Theory: Fineness modulus of sand (Fine aggregate) is an index number which represents
the mean size of the particles in sand. It is calculated by performing sieve analysis with
standard sieves. The cumulative percentage retained on each sieve is added and
subtracted by 100 gives the value of fine aggregate.

Procedure:

a) Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm,600
micron, 300 micron & 150 micron)

13
b) Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.

c) Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.

d) Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained.

e) Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained and divide the sum by 100. Thisvalue
is termed as fineness modulus.

Calculation:

Let us say the dry weight of sample = 1000gm

Table 2 - After sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated below.

Percentage Cumulative Passing

Weight
Sieve Size (mm) Weight Percentage Percentage
Retained (gm)
Retained (%) Retained (%) (%)

4.75 2 0.2 0.2 99.8

2.36 14 1.4 1.6 98.4

1.18 36 3.6 5.2 94.8

0.6 108 10.8 16 84

0.3 294 29.4 45.4 54.6

0.15 420 42 87.4 12.6

Result: Fineness modulus of aggregate = (cumulative % retained) / 100

= (255.8/100) = 2.55

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 Experiment 2

Aim: To determine fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

Apparatus: Standard Sieves, Mechanical Sieve Shaker.

Reference Standard: As per IS: 383 [2]

Theory: Fineness modulus of coarse aggregates represents the average size of the particles
in the coarse aggregate by an index number. It is calculated by performing sieve analysis
with standard sieves.

Procedure:

a) Sieve the aggregate using the appropriate sieves (40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75mm)
b) Record the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.

c) Calculate the cumulative weight of aggregate retained on each sieve.

d) Calculate the cumulative percentage of aggregate retained

e) Add the cumulative weight of aggregate retained with 500 and divide the sum by 100. This
value is termed as fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

Observation Table:

Let us say the dry weight of sample = 5000gm.

15
 Table 3 - After sieve analysis the values appeared are tabulated below.

Sieve Percentage Cumulative Passing

Size Weight
Weight Retained Percentage Retained Percentage
Retained (gm)
(%) (%) (%)

40mm 0 0 0 100

20mm 188 3.76 3.76 96.24

10mm 3568 71.36 75.12 28.64

4.75mm 1230 24.6 99.72 75.4

Pan 0 0 99.72 100

Total 278.32

Result: Fineness modulus of aggregate = [(cumulative % retained) + 500] / 100

= (778.32/100) = 7.78

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 Experiment 3

Aim: To determine the specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and waterabsorption
of fine aggregate.

Apparatus:
a) A balance or scale of capacity not less than 3 kg, readable and accurate to 0.5 g and of
such a type and shape as to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended from
the beam and the weighed in water.

b) A well ventilated oven.

c) Pycnometer.

Figure 4 - Pycnometer

Reference Standard: As Per IS: 2386-PART 3 [3]

17
 Theory:

a) Specific Gravity: Specific gravity of fine aggregate (sand) is the ratio of the weight of
given volume of aggregates to the weight of equal volume of water.
b) Water Absorption: It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample
expressed as a percentage. It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface
of the particles.
c) Apparent Specific Gravity. the ratio of the mass of a volume of the impermeable
portion of a material at a stated temperature to the mass of an equal volume of distilled
water at a stated temperature
Procedure:

a) Take about 500g of sample. Say A.

b) Place the sample in the pycnometer and Pour distilled water into it until it is fulland
weight it. Say B.

c) Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in theapex
of the cone being covered with a finger.

d) Drain the sample through a filter paper into a tray, care being taken to ensure thatall the
aggregate is transferred.

e) Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24hours.

f) After 24 hours weight the sample. Say D.

g) Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level and weight it. Say C.

Calculations:

A = weight of sample = 500gm

B = weight of pycnometer with sample and water = 1826gm

C = weight of pycnometer filled with distilled water only = 1524gmD

= weight of oven-dried sample = 496gm
Result:

a) Specific gravity = D / [A-(B-C)]

= 496 / [500-(1826-1524)

= 2.50
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 Apparent specific gravity = D / [D-(B-C)]

= 496 / [496-(1826-1524)

= 2.55

b) Water Absorption = (A-D/D) x 100

= (500-496/496) x 100

= 0.80%

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 Experiment 4

Aim: To determine the specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and waterabsorption of
coarse aggregate.

Apparatus:

a) A balance or scale of capacity not less than 3 kg, readable and accurate to 0.5 g and of
such a type and shape as to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended from
the beam and the weighed in water.
b) A well ventilated oven.

c) Pycnometer.

Reference Standard: As Per IS: 2386-PART 3 [3]

Theory:

a) Specific Gravity: Specific gravity of coarse aggregate is the ratio of the weight of
given volume of aggregates to the weight of equal volume of water.
b) Water Absorption: It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry sample
expressed as a percentage. It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface
of the particles.
c) Apparent Specific Gravity. the ratio of the mass of a volume of the impermeable
portion of a material at a stated temperature to the mass of an equal volume of distilled
water at a stated temperature.
Procedure:

a) Take about 500g of sample. Say A.

b) Place the sample in the pycnometer and Pour distilled water into it until it is full and
weight it. Say B.
c) Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in theapex
of the cone being covered with a finger.
d) Drain the sample through a filter paper into a tray, care being taken to ensure thatall the
aggregate is transferred.
e) Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24hours.
f) After 24 hours weight the sample. Say D.

g) Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level and weight it. Say C.
20
 Calculations:

A = weight of sample = 500gm

B = weight of pycnometer with sample and water = 1830gm

C = weight of pycnometer filled with distilled water only = 1524gmD

= weight of oven-dried sample = 498gm
Result:

a) Specific gravity = D / [A-(B-C)]

= 498 / [500-(1830-1524)

= 2.56

b) Apparent specific gravity = D / [D-(B-C)]

= 498 / [498-(1830-1524) = 2.59

c) Water Absorption = (A-D/D) x 100

= (500-498/498) x 100 = 0.40%

21
 Experiment 5

Aim: To determine normal consistency of cement.

Apparatus:

a) Vicat Apparatus Should be made as per IS:5513

b) Balance

c) Tray

d) Glass Plate

Figure 4 - Vicat Apparatus

Reference Standard: IS: 4031-PART 4-1988 [4]

22
 Theory: Normal consistency of cement is defined as the percentage of water by weight
of cement which produces a consistency which permits a plunger of 10mm dia to
penetrate upto a depth of 5mm to 7mm above the bottom of Vicats’s mould.

Procedure:

a) Take 400 g of cement and place it in the enameled tray.

b) Mix about 25% water by weight of dry cement thoroughly to get a cement paste. Total
time taken to obtain thoroughly mixed water cement paste i.e. “Gauging time” should not
be more than 3 to 5 minutes.
c) Fill the vicat mould, resting upon a glass plate, with this cement paste.

d) After filling the mould completely, smoothen the surface of the paste, making itlevel
with top of the mould.
e) Place the whole assembly (i.e. mould + cement paste + glass plate) under the rodbearing
plunger.
f) Lower the plunger gently so as to touch the surface of the test block and quicklyrelease
the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
g) Measure the depth of penetration and record it.

h) Prepare trial pastes with varying percentages of water content and follow the steps (2 to
7) as described above, until the depth of penetration becomes 33 to 35 mm.

Result:

Calculate percentage of water (P) by weight of dry cement required to prepare cement
paste of standard consistency by following formula, and express it to the first place of
decimal.

P = (W/C) x 100

= (104/400) x 100

= 26%

Where,

W=Quantity of water added

C=Quantity of cement use

23
 Experiment-6

Aim: To determine Initial and Final setting time of cement.

Apparatus:

a) Vicat Apparatus

b) Balance

c) Measuring Cylinder

d) Stopwatch

e) Glass Tray

f) Tray

g) Trowel

Reference Standard: (IS: 4031-PART 5-1988) [5]

Theory:
a) Initial setting time: It is that time period between the time water is added to cement and
time at which 1 mm square section needle fails to penetrate thecement paste, placed
in the Vicat’s mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the mould.
b) Final setting time: It is that time period between the time water is added to cement and
the time at which 1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5 mm
attachment does not make any impression.

Procedure:

a) Test Block Preparation

 Before commencing setting time test, do the consistency test to obtain the water
required to give the paste normal consistency (P).
 Take 400 g of cement and prepare a neat cement paste with 0.85P of water byweight
of cement.
 Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5 minutes. Start the stop watch at the instant when the
water is added to the cement. Record this time (T1).
 Fill the Vicat mould, resting on a glass plate, with the cement paste gauged as above. Fill
the mould completely and smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the
top of the mould. The cement block thus prepared is called test block.
24
b) Initial Setting Time

 Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under the
rod bearing the needle.
 Lower the needle gently until it comes in contact with the surface of test block and quick
release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block.
 In the beginning the needle completely pierces the test block. Repeat this procedure i.e.
quickly releasing the needle after every 2 minutes till the needle fails to pierce the block
for about 5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould. Note this time (T2).

c) Final Setting Time

 For determining the final setting time, replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the
needle with an annular attachment.
 The cement is considered finally set when upon applying the final setting needle gently
to the surface of the test block; the needle makes an impression thereon, while the
attachment fails to do so. Record this time (T3).

Result:

a) Initial setting time = T2-T1

= 11.00am - 10.25am = 35minutes

b) Final setting time = T3-T1

= 1.30pm - 10.25am = 185minutes

Where,

T1=Time at which water is first added to cement

T2=Time when needle fails to penetrate 5 mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mould

T3=Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to do so.

Precautions:

a) Release the initial and final setting time needles gently.

b) The experiment should be performed away from vibration and other disturbances.

c) Needle should be cleaned every time it is used.

d) Position of the mould should be shifted slightly after each penetration to avoid
penetration at the same place.
e) Test should be performed at the specified environmental conditions.

25
 Experiment-7
Aim:- To determine the consistency or workability of concrete mix.

Apparatus:

a) Mould for slump test.

b) Non-porous base plate.

c) Measuring scale.

d) Temping rod.

e) The mould for the test is in the form of the frustum of a cone having height 30 cm,bottom
diameter 20 cm and top diameter 10 cm.

f) The tamping rod is of steel 16 mm diameter and 60cm long and rounded at oneend.

Theory:

Concrete slump test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix

prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work.
Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of
concrete during construction.

The slump test is the most simple workability test for concrete, involves low cost and
provides immediate results. Due to this fact, it has been widely used for workability tests
since 1922. The slump is carried out as per procedures mentioned in IS: 1199 – 1959 in
India. [6]

Generally concrete slump value is used to find the workability, which indicates
water-cement ratio, but there are various factors including properties of materials, mixing
methods, dosage, admixtures etc. also affect the concrete slump value.

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 Factors which influence the concrete slump test:

 Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture content
and temperature of cementations materials. Size, texture, combinedgrading, cleanliness
and moisture content of the aggregates,
 Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of additionand its
effectiveness,
 Air content of concrete,

 Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,

 Temperature of the concrete,

 Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique and the condition of testequipment,

 The amount of free water in the concrete, and the time since mixing of concrete atthe
time of testing.

Sampling of Materials for Slump Test:-

A concrete mix (M15 or other) by weight with suitable water/ cement ratio is prepaid in
the laboratory similar to that explained in 5.9 and required for casting 6 cubes after
conducting Slump test.

Procedure for Concrete Slump Test:-

a) Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

b) Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.

c) Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.

d) Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform
manner over the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping
should penetrate into the underlying layer.
e) Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.

f) Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.
g) Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.

h) Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that ofheight
point of the specimen being tested.
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 Results of Slump Test on Concrete:-

a) Slump for 0.5 water content is 64 mm

b) Slump for 0.45 water content is 55mm

When the slump test is carried out, following are the shape of the concrete slump thatcan
be observed:

Figure - 5: Types of Concrete Slump Test Results

 True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The
measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after
the cone has been removed.
 Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which
results in dry mixes. These type of concrete is generally used for road construction.
 Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high,
I.e. concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump test is not
appropriate.
 Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to
be retested.

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 Chapter - 4: Material and Methodology

4.1 Data Required for Concrete Mix Design. (Without Fiber)

a) Concrete Mix Design Stipulation

 Characteristic compressive strength required in the field at 28 days grade

Designation - M25

 Nominal maximum size of aggregate - 20 mm

 Shape of aggregate - Angular

 Degree of workability required at site - 50-75 mm (slump)

 Degree of quality control available at site - As per IS:456

 Type of exposure the structure will be subjected to (as defined in IS: 456) - Mild

 Type of cement - OPC43 conforming IS:455

 Minimum cement content - 320 kg/m3

 Maximum Water Content - 0.6

b) Test data of material (to be determined in the laboratory)

 Cement used - OPC43

 Specific gravity of cement - 3.15

 Specific gravity of fine aggregate - 2.50

 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate - 2.56

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 Water absorption of fine aggregate - 0.80%

 Water absorption of coarse aggregate - 0.40%

 Water content using - 0.5

 Fine aggregates confirm to Zone II of IS: 383

Procedure For Concrete Mix Design of M- 25 Concrete.

Step 1 - Determination of target strength:-

Harmsworth constant for 5% risk factor is 1.65. In this case standard deviation is taken
from IS: 456 against M 25 are 4.0.

ft = fck + 1.65 x S

= 25 + 1.65 x 4.0 = 31.6 N/mm2

Where,

ft= Target compressive strengthfck

= Compressive strength
S = Standard deviation in N/mm2 = 4 (as per table - 1 of IS: 456)

Step 2 - Selection of water / cement ratio:-

From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)

Maximum water-cement ratio for Mild exposure condition = 0.55Based on experience,

adopt water-cement ratio as 0.5.
0.5 < 0.55, hence OK

Step 3 - Selection of Water & Sand:-

From Table 2 of IS: 10262- 2009,

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a) Maximum water content = 186 kg (for Nominal maximum size of aggregate – 20 mm)
b) Sand content as percentage of total aggregate by absolute = 35%
(For Nominal Maximum size of aggregate - 20 mm)

But, this table is valid for water content = 0.6 Workability = 25-50mm & and applicable up
to M35

Table 4- For Correction in water content

[Link] Change in conditions Adjustments

stipulated for
tables Water Content Percentage of
sand in total
aggregate

For sand confirming to grade + 1.5% for Zone I

1. Zone I or Zone III
- 1.5% for Zone III
or Zone IV 0
- 3% for Zone IV

Increase or decrease of
2. value compacting factoror
workability by
25mm + 3%

3. Each 0.05 increaseor

decrease in
Water-cement ratio 0 - 2%

4. For rounded aggregate - 15kg - 7%

Total + 3% - 5%

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Step 4 - Required water content:-

= 186 + (3/100) x 186 = 191.6 kg /m3

Step 5 - Required sand content by absolute:-

= 35% - 5% = 30%

Step 6 - Selection of Cement Content:-

Water-cement ratio = 0.5

Corrected water content = 191.6 kg/m3 Cement
content = (Water content / 0.5)

= (191.6 / 0.5)
= 383.2 kg/m3

Step 7 - Determination of aggregates.

Table 5 - Determination of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate:-

[Link]. Maximum Size of Entrapped air percentage of

Aggregate volume of concrete
1 10 3
2 20 2
3 30 1

Step 8 - Mix calculation:-

V = [W + C/Sc + 1/P x Fa/Sfa] x 1/1000

Where; V = Absolute volume of fresh concrete
= Gross volume - Volume of entrapped air
W = Mass of water
C = Cement content
Sc = Specific gravity of coarse aggregate Sfa = Specific gravity of fine aggregate
P = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volumeFa = Fine aggregate content

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Now; V = Gross Volume - Volume of entrapped air
= 1 - (2 / 100) = 0.98

P = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

= 30/100 = 0.30

Now;
0.98 = [191.6 + (383.2 / 3.15) + (1 / 0.30) x (Fa / 2.50)] x (1/1000)
Fa = 500.00 kg/m3

For coarse aggregate;

Ca = (1 - P / P) x Fa x ( Sca / Sfa)
= (1 - 0.30 / 0.30) x 500.00 x (2.56 / 2.50)
= 1194.9 kg/m3

Step 9 - Mix proportions.

Table 6 -Mix proportion for M25:-

Cement Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Water Content

383.2 kg 500.00 kg 1194.9 kg 191.6 liters
1 1.30 3.12 0.5

M25:- = 1:1.30:3.12

Step 6: Estimation of the mix ingredients:-

 Volume of cube = (0.15) x (0.15) x (0.15) = 3.375 x 10-3

 Calculated ratio of M25 = 1+1.30+3.12 = 5.42

 Mass of concrete for 1 cube = Density x Volume = 2400 x 3.375 x 10-3 = 8.1 kg

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 Taking Factor Of Safety = 1.1

So, Mass of concrete for 1 cube = 8.1 x 1.1 = 8.91 kg

 Mass of cement for 1 cube = (1 / 1+1.30+3.12) x 8.91 = 1.64 kg

 Mass of cement for 6 cubes = 1.64 x 6 = 9.86 kg

 Mass of fine aggregate for 1 cube = (1.30 / 1+1.30+3.12) x 8.91 = 2.13 kg

 Mass of fine aggregate for 6 cubes = 2.13 x 6 = 12.82 kg

 Mass of coarse aggregate for 1 cube = (3.12 / 1+1.30+3.12) x 8.91 = 5.12 kg

 Mass of coarse aggregate for 6 cubes = 5.12 x 6 = 30.77 kg

 Water to be used = Total cement x Water content = 10.2 x 0.5 = 4.93 liters

34
 Chapter - 5: Observation & Result

A) For W/C = 0.5

Table 7- Strength of cubes after 7 days of curing.

[Link]. Dimensions of cube Load Compressive Average

(mm3) (KN) Strength (N/mm2) compressive
strength (N/mm2)

1 150 x 150 x 150 499 22.22

2 150 x 150 x 150 482 21.45 22.45

3 150 x 150 x 150 532 23.68

Table 8- Strength of cubes after 28 days of curing.

Dimensions of cube(mm3)
[Link]. Load Compressive Average
(KN) Strength (N/mm2) compressive
strength (N/mm2)

1 150 x 150 x 150 775 34.44

2 150 x 150 x 150 750 33.33 32.22

3 150 x 150 x 150 650 28.88

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