O-Level Physics (Forms 3–4) | Chapter 1: Measurement and Physical Quantities

CHAPTER 1

Measurement and Physical Quantities

O-Level Physics — Forms 3 and 4

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Measure length, mass, time and temperature correctly, and read an instrument scale to the
nearest fraction of a division.
• State base and derived S.I. units, and derive the unit of a quantity such as speed or force from
base units.
• Determine the density of regular solids, irregular solids and liquids by experiment.
• Explain how density determines whether an object floats or sinks in a liquid.
• Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, with examples of each.
• Find the resultant of two coplanar vectors using a scale drawing (the graphical method).
• Give everyday examples of situations where adding vectors matters.

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 O-Level Physics (Forms 3–4) | Chapter 1: Measurement and Physical Quantities

1.1 What is Physics?

Physics is the branch of science that studies matter and energy — things like motion, forces, heat,
light, sound and electricity — and the rules that govern how they behave. Before any of these can be
studied properly, one basic skill is needed: the ability to measure things accurately, and to say clearly
what has been measured. This chapter builds that skill. You will learn what a physical quantity is,
how to use common measuring instruments correctly, how density is found and what it tells us, and
how to work with vectors — quantities that have a direction as well as a size.

1.2 Physical Quantities, Units and Standard Form

A physical quantity is anything that can be measured. Every physical quantity has two parts: a
number, called the magnitude, and a unit. For example, if a desk is 1.2 m long, “1.2” is the
magnitude and “m” (metres) is the unit. A number on its own means nothing in physics — saying a
desk is “1.2 long” does not make sense until we say 1.2 of what.

Key idea
A physical quantity = a magnitude (a number) + a unit.

Base quantities and their S.I. units

Scientists everywhere use the same system of units, called the Système International d'Unités, or S.I.
units for short. This lets scientists in Zimbabwe, Japan, Brazil and everywhere else share and
compare results without confusion. Some quantities are chosen as base (or fundamental) quantities
— they are not defined in terms of any other quantity. Table 1.1 shows the base quantities you will
meet.

Base quantity S.I. base unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electric current ampere A

Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

Table 1.1: The seven S.I. base quantities and units. In this chapter you will measure length, mass, time and
temperature directly, using the instruments described in Sections 1.3 to 1.6.

Derived quantities and units

Most quantities used in physics are not base quantities — they are derived quantities, formed by
multiplying or dividing base quantities together. The unit of a derived quantity is called a derived
unit. Table 1.2 shows some examples you will use often.

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Derived quantity How it is obtained Derived unit

Area length × length m² (or cm²)

Volume length × length × length m³ (or cm³)

Density mass ÷ volume kg/m³ (or g/cm³)

Speed distance ÷ time m/s

Force mass × acceleration kg·m/s², called the newton (N)

Work / Energy force × distance kg·m²/s², called the joule (J)

Power work ÷ time kg·m²/s³, called the watt (W)

Table 1.2: Some derived quantities and units. A few derived units are used so often that they are given their own
special name, rather than always writing the base units out in full. You will meet more of these later in the course —
for example the volt (V) in Electricity, and the pascal (Pa) in Pressure.

Worked Example 1.1 — Deriving a unit from base units

Question: Show that the unit of speed is m/s, and that the unit of force (the newton) equals
kg·m/s².
Speed = distance ÷ time, so the unit of speed = unit of distance ÷ unit of time = m ÷ s = m/s.
Force = mass × acceleration. Acceleration is itself speed ÷ time, so its unit is (m/s) ÷ s = m/s². So
the unit of force = unit of mass × unit of acceleration = kg × m/s² = kg·m/s². This combination of
units is given the special name newton (N).

S.I. prefixes
A measurement is not always a convenient size for the basic unit. A prefix is attached to a unit to
show that it has been multiplied or divided by a power of ten. Table 1.3 shows the prefixes you will
use most in this course.

Prefix Symbol Multiplying factor Example

kilo k × 1000 1 km = 1000 m

centi c × 0.01 1 cm = 0.01 m

milli m × 0.001 1 mm = 0.001 m

micro µ × 0.000 001 1 µm = 0.000 001 m

Standard form (scientific notation)

Very large or very small measurements are awkward to write out in full, and it is easy to lose count
of the zeros. Standard form writes a number as A × 10ⁿ, where A is between 1 and 10, and n is a
whole number (positive for large numbers, negative for small numbers).
• 0.000 0032 m is written as 3.2 × 10⁻⁶ m
• 25 000 000 m is written as 2.5 × 10⁷ m

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Writing measurements in standard form also makes it easy to see how precise a measurement is,
and to compare very different sizes quickly.

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 O-Level Physics (Forms 3–4) | Chapter 1: Measurement and Physical Quantities

1.3 Measuring Length

The simplest tool for measuring length is a ruler or metre rule, which can measure to the nearest
millimetre (0.1 cm) if it is used carefully. To get an accurate reading from any scale:
• Place the zero mark exactly at the start of the object being measured (or note the actual
starting reading and subtract it from the final reading if the zero mark is worn).
• Look straight down at the scale, with your eye directly above the mark you are reading. Looking
at an angle causes a parallax error — the reading appears to shift, giving a wrong value.
• Read to the nearest fraction of the smallest division — for a millimetre scale, this means
estimating to the nearest half a millimetre.

Key idea — Parallax error

Parallax error happens when your eye is not directly in line with the scale and the mark being
read. It makes an object look longer or shorter than it really is. Avoid it by always reading a
scale directly from above (or directly in front), at eye level.

Vernier calipers
A ruler cannot measure the diameter of a marble, or the inside width of a test tube, very precisely. A
vernier caliper solves this problem. It has jaws that grip the object, a fixed main scale (marked in
cm), and a small sliding vernier scale with 10 divisions. A vernier caliper typically reads to the nearest
0.01 cm (0.1 mm).

Figure 1.1: Reading a vernier caliper. The main scale gives the reading to the nearest 0.1 cm; the vernier scale adds
the next decimal place.

How to read a vernier caliper:

1. Read the main scale value immediately before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This gives the
reading to the nearest 0.1 cm.
2. Look along the vernier scale to find the one division that lines up exactly with a mark on the
main scale.
3. Multiply that vernier division number by 0.01 cm.

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4. Add the main scale reading and the vernier reading together to get the total reading.

Worked Example 1.2

Question: A vernier caliper is used to measure the diameter of a test tube. The main scale reads
3.4 cm, and the 6th vernier division lines up exactly with a main-scale mark. Find the diameter
of the test tube.
Main scale reading = 3.4 cm
Vernier reading = 6 × 0.01 cm = 0.06 cm
Total reading = 3.4 cm + 0.06 cm = 3.46 cm

Micrometer screw gauge

For even smaller lengths — such as the diameter of a wire, or the thickness of a sheet of paper — we
use a micrometer screw gauge, which typically reads to the nearest 0.01 mm (0.001 cm). The object
is gripped gently between a fixed anvil and a moving spindle, turned using a thimble. A ratchet at the
end of the thimble stops you from over-tightening the gauge, which would squeeze the object and
give a false reading.

Figure 1.2: Reading a micrometer screw gauge. The sleeve scale gives whole and half millimetres; the thimble scale
adds the next two decimal places, in mm.

How to read a micrometer screw gauge:

1. Read the sleeve (main) scale at the edge of the thimble. Remember to include an extra 0.5 mm
if the lower half-millimetre line is visible.
2. Find the thimble scale division that lines up with the horizontal datum line on the sleeve.
3. Multiply that thimble division number by 0.01 mm.
4. Add the sleeve reading and the thimble reading together.

Worked Example 1.3

Question: A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of a wire. The sleeve

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reads 8.0 mm, and the 15th thimble division lines up with the datum line. Find the diameter of
the wire.
Sleeve reading = 8.0 mm
Thimble reading = 15 × 0.01 mm = 0.15 mm
Total reading = 8.0 mm + 0.15 mm = 8.15 mm

Choosing the right instrument

Instrument Smallest reading (precision) Typical use

Length of objects several cm or more;

Metre rule / ruler 0.1 cm (1 mm)
distances between points

Diameters, and internal, external or

Vernier calipers 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
depth measurements of smaller objects

Very small lengths, e.g. the diameter of a

Micrometer screw gauge 0.001 cm (0.01 mm)
wire or the thickness of paper

Table 1.4: Comparing the precision of common length-measuring instruments.

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1.4 Measuring Mass

Mass is the amount of matter in an object, measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g). Mass is usually
found using a balance:
• A beam balance (or triple beam balance) compares the unknown mass against known masses,
or sliding weights, until the beam balances.
• An electronic (digital) balance gives a direct reading on a display, and is usually quicker and
more precise.

Key idea — Mass and weight are not the same thing
Mass (kg) is the amount of matter in an object; it does not change wherever the object is.
Weight (N) is the pull of gravity on that mass, and does change from place to place — for
example, an object weighs slightly less on the Moon than on the Earth, even though its mass is
exactly the same. You will look at weight again in the chapter on Forces.

Before using any balance, check that it reads zero with nothing on it. If it does not, this is called a
zero error, and must be corrected for — either by resetting the balance, or by subtracting the zero-
error value from every later reading.

1.5 Measuring Time

Time is measured in seconds (s), using clocks, watches, or — most commonly in the school
laboratory — a stopwatch.
• A digital stopwatch usually reads to the nearest 0.01 s, but your own reaction time when
starting and stopping it (typically a few tenths of a second) is often the biggest source of error.
• To reduce the effect of reaction time, take several readings and find the average, or, for a
repeating (periodic) motion, time a number of repeats together and divide by that number. For
example, timing 20 swings of a pendulum and dividing the total time by 20 gives a more
accurate value for the time of a single swing than timing just one swing.

1.6 Measuring Temperature

Temperature tells us how hot or cold something is. It is measured using a thermometer — most
commonly, in a school laboratory, a liquid-in-glass thermometer, in which a liquid (often coloured
alcohol) expands up a thin glass tube as it gets hotter.
• In everyday use, and in most laboratory work, temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (°C),
where 0°C is the freezing point of pure water and 100°C is its boiling point at normal
atmospheric pressure.
• The S.I. base unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). To change from Celsius to kelvin, add 273: T
(K) = θ (°C) + 273.
• Make sure the bulb of the thermometer is fully covered by whatever you are measuring, and is
not touching the sides or bottom of the container. Give it time to reach a steady reading, and
read the scale at eye level, in line with the top of the liquid column, to avoid parallax error.

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Quick check: a healthy human body temperature of about 37°C is equal to 37 + 273 = 310 K.

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1.7 Measuring Area and Volume

Area
For regular (simple, uniform) shapes, area can be calculated directly using a formula, once the
necessary lengths have been measured with a ruler.

Shape Area formula

Rectangle A = length × width

Square A = (side)²

Triangle A = ½ × base × height

Circle A = π × (radius)²

Table 1.5: Formulas for the area of common regular shapes.

For an irregular shape — a leaf, for example — there is no simple formula, so instead:
1. Place the shape on graph paper (or place graph paper underneath a clear surface) and trace its
outline.
2. Count the number of complete squares enclosed by the outline.
3. For each partly-covered square, count it if at least half of it is inside the outline; ignore it if less
than half is inside.
4. Add these together and multiply by the area of one square (found from the scale of the graph
paper) to estimate the total area.

Volume
For regular solids, volume is calculated directly from measured lengths.

Shape Volume formula

Cube V = (side)³

Cuboid V = length × width × height

Cylinder V = π × (radius)² × height

Table 1.6: Formulas for the volume of common regular solids.

The volume of a liquid is usually read directly from a measuring cylinder. Because most liquids curve
slightly where they meet the glass (this curve is called the meniscus), you should view the scale at
eye level and read from the bottom of the curve, to avoid parallax error.

Finding the volume of an irregular solid: the displacement method

An irregularly shaped solid — such as a stone — has no formula for its volume. Instead, we use the
fact that a solid pushes aside (displaces) its own volume of liquid when it is completely submerged.

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Figure 1.3: Finding the volume of an irregular solid by displacement. The rise in the water level equals the volume of
the solid.

Method:
1. Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the volume, V₁.
2. Tie the solid to a thin thread and lower it gently into the water until it is completely covered,
making sure it does not touch the sides or bottom of the cylinder.
3. Record the new, higher volume, V₂.
4. The volume of the solid = V₂ − V₁.
If the solid is too large for a measuring cylinder, an overflow (eureka) can is used instead: it is filled to
the level of its spout, the solid is lowered in, and the water that overflows is collected and measured
in a measuring cylinder — this collected volume equals the volume of the solid.

Worked Example 1.4

Using the readings shown in Figure 1.3: initial volume V₁ = 50 cm³, final volume V₂ = 65 cm³.
Volume of the stone = V₂ − V₁ = 65 cm³ − 50 cm³ = 15 cm³

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1.8 Density
Density tells us how tightly matter is packed into a given space — it compares the mass of a
substance with the volume it occupies. A small, heavy stone is dense; a same-sized piece of foam is
not.

Key idea
Density = mass ÷ volume, or ρ = m / V. The symbol ρ (“rho”) stands for density.
The S.I. unit of density is kg/m³, although g/cm³ is often more convenient in the laboratory. 1
g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³.

Finding the density of a regular solid

1. Measure the mass, m, of the solid using a balance.
2. Measure its dimensions using a ruler (or vernier calipers, for a small object), and calculate its
volume, V, using the appropriate formula from Table 1.6.
3. Calculate the density using ρ = m / V.

Worked Example 1.5

Question: A rectangular metal block measures 4 cm × 3 cm × 2 cm and has a mass of 96 g.
Calculate its density.
Volume = 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 cm³
Density = m / V = 96 g ÷ 24 cm³ = 4 g/cm³

Finding the density of an irregular solid

1. Measure the mass, m, of the solid using a balance.
2. Find its volume, V, using the displacement method described in Section 1.7.
3. Calculate the density using ρ = m / V.

Worked Example 1.6

Question: The stone in Figure 1.3 has a mass of 45 g, and its volume (found in Worked Example
1.4) is 15 cm³. Calculate its density.
Density = m / V = 45 g ÷ 15 cm³ = 3 g/cm³

Finding the density of a liquid

1. Measure the mass of an empty, dry measuring cylinder (or density bottle) using a balance.
2. Pour in a known volume, V, of the liquid, and measure the new mass.
3. Mass of the liquid, m = (mass of cylinder + liquid) − (mass of empty cylinder).
4. Calculate the density using ρ = m / V.

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Worked Example 1.7

Question: An empty measuring cylinder has a mass of 40 g. When 30 cm³ of a liquid is poured
in, the total mass becomes 64 g. Calculate the density of the liquid.
Mass of liquid = 64 g − 40 g = 24 g
Density = m / V = 24 g ÷ 30 cm³ = 0.8 g/cm³

Density, floating and sinking

Whether an object floats or sinks in a liquid depends on how its density compares with the density
of that liquid:
• If the object's density is less than the liquid's density, it floats.
• If the object's density is greater than the liquid's density, it sinks.
The density of water is 1 g/cm³ (1000 kg/m³), which makes it a useful reference point. Table 1.7
gives some approximate densities.

Substance Approximate density (g/cm³)

Cork 0.24

Ice 0.92

Cooking oil ≈ 0.92

Water 1.00

Aluminium 2.70

Iron / steel 7.80

Mercury 13.60

Gold 19.30

Table 1.7: Approximate densities of some common substances. This is why ice floats on water, and why cooking oil
forms a layer on top of water rather than mixing with it.

Did you know?

A steel ship floats, even though steel itself (about 7.8 g/cm³) is far denser than water. This is
because a ship is mostly hollow, full of air. Its overall (average) density — its total mass divided
by the total volume enclosed by the hull, including all that empty space — is less than the
density of water, so it floats. If the hull is damaged and fills with water, that average density
rises, and the ship can sink.

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1.9 Scalars and Vectors

Some quantities are completely described by a size (magnitude) alone. Others need a direction as
well, to have any real meaning.

Key idea
A scalar quantity has magnitude only. Example: a mass of 5 kg.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Example: a force of 5 N acting downwards.

Scalar quantities (examples) Vector quantities (examples)

distance, speed, mass, time, volume, density, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight,
temperature, energy momentum

Table 1.8: Examples of scalar and vector quantities.

Notice that some quantities look similar but are different: distance (how far you have travelled — a
scalar) is not the same as displacement (how far, and in what direction, you have ended up from
your starting point — a vector). In the same way, speed (a scalar) is not the same as velocity (speed
in a stated direction — a vector). You will meet both of these again in the Kinematics chapter.

Representing vectors
A vector is usually drawn as an arrow. The length of the arrow, drawn to a chosen scale, represents
the magnitude; the arrowhead shows the direction.

Adding vectors along the same straight line

If two vectors act along the same line, adding them is simple arithmetic:
• If they act in the same direction, add their magnitudes.
• If they act in opposite directions, subtract the smaller from the larger; the resultant acts in the
direction of the larger one.
For example, two forces of 10 N and 4 N pulling in the same direction on a rope give a resultant of 14
N in that direction. If they pull in opposite directions instead, the resultant is 10 N − 4 N = 6 N, in the
direction of the 10 N force.

Adding coplanar vectors that are not in a straight line

When two vectors act in different directions, but in the same plane (coplanar vectors) — for
example, at an angle to each other — we cannot simply add or subtract their magnitudes. Instead,
we find the resultant using a scale drawing. There are two equivalent ways to do this.

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Figure 1.4: Two ways of finding the resultant of two coplanar vectors — the parallelogram rule and the triangle (tip-
to-tail) rule. Both give exactly the same resultant, R.

The parallelogram rule:

1. Choose a suitable scale (for example, 1 cm represents 2 N) and draw both vectors starting from
the same point, at the correct angle to each other.
2. Complete the parallelogram by drawing a line parallel to each vector from the tip of the other.
3. Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram, starting from the point where the two original vectors
began. This diagonal is the resultant.
4. Measure the length of this diagonal and convert it back to the correct units using your scale;
measure its angle with a protractor to give its direction.
The triangle (tip-to-tail) rule:
1. Draw the first vector to scale.
2. From the tip (arrowhead) of the first vector, draw the second vector to scale, at the correct
angle.
3. The resultant is the line joining the start of the first vector to the tip of the second vector.

Worked Example 1.8

Question: A force of 6 N acts due East on an object, and a force of 8 N acts due North on the
same object at the same time. Find the resultant force, using a scale drawing.
Using a scale of 1 cm = 2 N: draw a 3 cm line pointing East for the 6 N force, and a 4 cm line
pointing North for the 8 N force, both from the same starting point.
Complete the parallelogram (or use the triangle rule) and draw in the resultant.
Measuring the resultant line, it is 5 cm long, at an angle of about 53° from the East direction,
turning towards North. Converting back: 5 cm × 2 N/cm = 10 N.
So the resultant force is 10 N, at 53° north of east.
Check: since the two forces are at right angles, we can confirm this using Pythagoras and
trigonometry — R = √(6² + 8²) = √(36 + 64) = √100 = 10 N, and tan θ = 8/6, so θ = 53.1°. This
matches the scale drawing.

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Applications of adding vectors

• Working out the net (resultant) force on an object being pulled or pushed from more than one
direction — for example, in a tug-of-war, or in the ropes and beams of a roof truss (you will
meet this again in the Mechanical Structures chapter).
• Navigation: an aircraft's velocity relative to the ground is the resultant (vector sum) of its
velocity through the air and the wind's velocity — a strong crosswind can blow a plane well off
its intended course if this is not accounted for.
• A boat or canoe crossing a flowing river: its resultant velocity, relative to the riverbank, is the
vector sum of the velocity given by its engine or paddles and the velocity of the river's current.

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Chapter Summary
• A physical quantity = a magnitude (number) + a unit.
• Base quantities (length, mass, time, temperature, current, amount of substance, luminous
intensity) have their own S.I. units; derived quantities combine these.
• Length is measured with a ruler (to 0.1 cm), vernier calipers (to 0.01 cm) or a micrometer screw
gauge (to 0.01 mm), depending on how small and how precise the measurement must be.
• Mass is measured with a balance; time with a stopwatch; temperature with a thermometer.
• The volume of an irregular solid is found by the displacement method: V = V₂ − V₁.
• Density ρ = m / V; comparing an object's density with a liquid's density tells us whether it will
float or sink.
• A scalar quantity has magnitude only; a vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
• The resultant of two coplanar vectors is found by a scale drawing, using either the parallelogram
rule or the triangle rule.

Key formulas from this chapter

Density: ρ = m / V
Vernier reading = main scale reading + (vernier division × 0.01 cm)
Micrometer reading = sleeve reading + (thimble division × 0.01 mm)
Volume by displacement: V (solid) = V₂ − V₁
Temperature: T (K) = θ (°C) + 273

Glossary

Term Meaning

Physical quantity Anything that can be measured; a magnitude together with a unit.

A quantity that is not defined in terms of any other quantity (e.g. mass,
Base quantity
length, time).

A quantity obtained by combining base quantities (e.g. speed, density,

Derived quantity
force).

S.I. unit A unit from the internationally agreed Système International d'Unités.

Standard form Writing a number as A × 10ⁿ, where 1 ≤ A < 10.

An instrument with a sliding scale, used to measure length to the nearest

Vernier calipers
0.01 cm.

An instrument used to measure very small lengths to the nearest 0.01

Micrometer screw gauge
mm.

An error caused by viewing a scale from an angle rather than directly in

Parallax error
line with the mark.

Zero error A reading shown by an instrument when it should read zero.

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Term Meaning

Density Mass per unit volume of a substance, ρ = m / V.

A method of finding the volume of an irregular solid, from the rise in

Displacement method
liquid level when it is submerged.

Meniscus The curved surface of a liquid where it meets the wall of its container.

Scalar quantity A quantity with magnitude only.

Vector quantity A quantity with both magnitude and direction.

The single vector that has the same effect as two or more vectors acting
Resultant
together.

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Review Questions
Answer all questions. Show your working for any calculation.

Section A — Quick recall

A1. What is meant by a “physical quantity”?
A2. State the S.I. base unit of: (a) mass (b) time (c) temperature.
A3. What is a “derived unit”? Give one example.
A4. Name two instruments used for measuring length, other than a ruler, and state which one is
more precise.
A5. Define density.
A6. Distinguish between a scalar and a vector quantity, giving one example of each.

Section B — Calculations
B1. Write these in standard form: (a) 0.000 045 m (b) 6 200 000 m.
B2. A vernier caliper is used to measure a ball bearing. The main scale reads 1.6 cm, and the 7th
vernier division lines up with a main-scale mark. What is the diameter of the ball bearing?
B3. A micrometer screw gauge gives a sleeve reading of 3.0 mm and a thimble reading of 42
divisions. Calculate the diameter of the wire being measured.
B4. A rectangular wooden block measures 5 cm × 4 cm × 2 cm and has a mass of 24 g. Calculate its
density in g/cm³. Would this block float or sink in water? Explain your answer.
B5. An irregular stone is lowered into a measuring cylinder. The water level rises from 35 cm³ to 42
cm³. If the stone has a mass of 21 g, calculate its density.
B6. Convert: (a) 2.5 g/cm³ to kg/m³ (b) 15°C to kelvin.

Section C — Scalars and vectors

C1. State whether each of the following is a scalar or a vector: (a) 20 m south (b) 5 kg (c) 15 m/s
eastwards (d) 30°C.
C2. Two forces, 9 N due East and 12 N due North, act on an object at the same time. Using a scale
drawing, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. Check your answer using
Pythagoras.
C3. Give one real-life example where finding the resultant of two vectors is useful, and explain
briefly why direction matters in that example.

Section D — Experimental skills

D1. Describe, step by step, how you would find the density of an irregularly shaped metal key, using
a measuring cylinder, water and a balance.
D2. Explain why it is important to read a measuring cylinder's scale at eye level, looking at the
bottom of the meniscus.

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Answers to Review Questions

Try each question yourself before checking these answers.

Section A
A1. A quantity that can be measured, consisting of a numerical magnitude together with a unit.
A2. (a) kilogram, kg (b) second, s (c) kelvin, K.
A3. A unit formed by combining base units through multiplication or division, e.g. m/s for speed, or
the newton (kg·m/s²) for force.
A4. Vernier calipers and a micrometer screw gauge. The micrometer screw gauge is more precise
(0.01 mm, compared with 0.01 cm for the vernier calipers).
A5. Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance: ρ = m / V.
A6. A scalar has magnitude only (e.g. a mass of 5 kg); a vector has both magnitude and direction
(e.g. a force of 5 N downwards).

Section B
B1. (a) 4.5 × 10⁻⁵ m (b) 6.2 × 10⁶ m.
B2. 1.6 cm + (7 × 0.01 cm) = 1.67 cm.
B3. 3.0 mm + (42 × 0.01 mm) = 3.42 mm.
B4. Volume = 5 × 4 × 2 = 40 cm³. Density = 24 g ÷ 40 cm³ = 0.6 g/cm³. Since 0.6 g/cm³ is less than the
density of water (1.0 g/cm³), the block floats.
B5. Volume = 42 − 35 = 7 cm³. Density = 21 g ÷ 7 cm³ = 3 g/cm³.
B6. (a) 2.5 × 1000 = 2500 kg/m³ (b) 15 + 273 = 288 K.

Section C
C1. (a) vector (b) scalar (c) vector (d) scalar.
C2. By scale drawing (parallelogram or triangle rule): resultant ≈ 15 N, at about 53° north of east.
Check: R = √(9² + 12²) = √225 = 15 N; tan θ = 12/9, so θ = 53.1°.
C3. Sample answer: an aircraft flying through a crosswind. Its speed through the air might be exactly
right, but if the wind's direction is not accounted for, the resultant (actual) path over the ground
can drift well off the intended course — direction matters just as much as speed.

Section D
D1. 1. Measure the mass of the key using a balance. 2. Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water
and record the volume, V₁. 3. Tie the key to a thread and lower it gently into the water until fully
submerged, without touching the sides or bottom. 4. Record the new volume, V₂. 5. Find the
volume of the key: V = V₂ − V₁. 6. Calculate the density using ρ = m / V.
D2. Viewing the scale from an angle causes parallax error — an apparent shift in the reading
depending on where your eye is, which can make you over- or under-read the true water level.
Most liquids curve slightly at the edges (the meniscus); viewing at eye level, in line with the
bottom of this curve, gives the true, accurate volume reading.

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