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EE211

An electric circuit is a closed path for current flow, consisting of active and passive elements. Active elements, like voltage and current sources, provide energy, while passive elements, such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors, consume or store energy. The document also discusses various types of circuit elements, including linear and non-linear, bilateral and unilateral, and the principles of Kirchhoff's laws for analyzing electrical networks.

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2 views25 pages

EE211

An electric circuit is a closed path for current flow, consisting of active and passive elements. Active elements, like voltage and current sources, provide energy, while passive elements, such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors, consume or store energy. The document also discusses various types of circuit elements, including linear and non-linear, bilateral and unilateral, and the principles of Kirchhoff's laws for analyzing electrical networks.

Uploaded by

isaacemma2006
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
ast An Electric Circuit is an intere terconnection of various elements in which there is at least one closed Path in which which current can can flow. An Electric circuit is used as a component f any engineering system. The performance ot aeeeees any electrical device or machine is always studied by drawing its electrical Y simulating an electric circuit, any type of system can be studied for e.., Mechanical, hydr ’ hydraulic thermal, nuclear, traffic flow, weather prediction etc All contr Ntrol systems are studie: any ee zs ; ns are studied by representing them in the form of electric circuits. The analysis, of an be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory. The analysis o YsIs of any system can be learnt by mastering the techniques of circuit theory Elements of an Electric circuit: An Electric circuit consists of following types of elements Active elements Active elements are the elements of a circuit which possess energy of their own and can impart it to other element of the circuit. Active elements are of two types a) Voltage source b) Current source A Voltage source has a specified voltage across its terminals, independent of current flowing through it. A current source has a specified current through it independent of the voltage appearing across it Passive Elements: The passive elements of an electric circuit do not possess energy of their own. They receive energy from the sources. The passive elements are the resistance, the inductance and the capacitance When electrical energy is supplied to a circuit element, it will respond in one and more of the following ways. If the energy is consumed, then the circuit element is a pure resistor. If the energy is stored in a magnetic field, the element is a pure inductor. ‘And if the energy is stored in an electric field, the element is a pure capacitor. Ae False pin NDE ine, OF and Non-Linear Elements Linear elements show the eristi linear characteristics of voltage & current. That is its voltage-current CS are at all-times a str charact aight-line through the origin For example, through its and the rel Satisfies the principle o he current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage applied ation is expressed as Vill or V = IR. A linear element or network is one which * Superposition, ic., the principle of homogeneity and additivity Resistors, inductors and ca acitors are th les of the linear elements and their Properties do not a P. are the example: hange with a change in the applied voltage and the circuit current Non li o through it doce an ement’s V+ characteristics do not follow the linear pattern ie. the current passing ugh it 7 1g) It does not change linearly with the linear change in the voltage across it. Examples are the miconductor devices such as diode, transistor. Bilateral and Unilateral Elements: An element is said to be bilateral, when the same relation exists between voltage and current for the current flowing in both directions Ex: Voltage source, Current source, resistance, inductance & capacitance. The circuits containing them are called bilateral circuits. An element is said to be unilateral, when the same relation does not exist between voltage and current when current flowing in both directions. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits. Ex: Vacuum diodes, Silicon Diodes, Selenium Rectifiers etc. Lumped and Distributed Elements Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors. Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes. For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds of miles. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits. es of Sources dependent & Dependent sources: at and the current Ifthe voltage of the voltage source is completely independent source of current and tl : sources are called as Teens, CUTTERE source 1s completely independent of the voltage, then the sOUrCES 2 independent sources, nds on some other The sPecial kind of sources in which the source voltage or current depend called Guantity in the circuit which may be a Dependent sources or Controlled sour either a voltage or a cui ces, There are four possible dependent sources Voltage dependent Voltage source Current dependent Current source Voltage dependent Current source Current dependent Current source ange Voltage Dependent Current Dependent sitage Depende Current Source ti. . : 4 o rt i} V > av = | a Lo Current Dependent . Voltage Dependent Voltage Source voltage Source. The in which B & a has no units, r has units Constants of proportionalities are written as 8, g, a, rin which of ohm & g Units of mhos Inde, Pendent sources actu: alternator. I s physical entities such as battery, a de generator & an ally exist as physical entitis But dependent sources are used to epresent electrical properties of electronic devices Such as OPAMPS & Transistors Ideal & Practical sources: e load at a constant terminal 1. An ideal voltage source is one which delivers energy to the load at a co voltage, irrespective of the current drawn by the load. constant current to the load, An ideal current source is one, which delivers energy with a constan "respective of the terminal voltage across the load ernal resistance r. The A Practical voltage source always possesses a very small value of ees ea oe internal resistance of a voltage source is always connected in en ones Source; it is always connected in parallel with it. As the value o! the eral esitance of Practical voltage source is very small, its terminal voltage is assu within a certain limit of current flowing through the load tive of the 1 current, irrespec 4. A practical current source is also assumed to deliver a constan it terminal voltage across the load connected to Vs The equi Equivalent single ideal voltage some is given by V= V1 + V2, Any number + of id apne am voltage sources connected in series can be represented by a single ideal et ‘aking in to account the polarities connected together in to consideration. Pri actical voltage source connected in series: ta Ve Ideal voltage source connected in parallel: uC) “CG) hen two ideal voltag IErOSs its terminals a of emt's V 5 V1 & V2 are connected in parallel, what voltage appears ambiguous. Hence such conn Hons should not be made However if V1 = v2= v, the nthe equi quivalent voltage some is rep! 'n that case also, such vena @ Connection is unnece: essary as only one voltage source serves the purpose. ° y nt) nS he hte 4h : I a )ongete Equivalent Circuit Single Equivalent Voltage Source Ideal current sources connected in series: When ideal current sources are connected in series, what current flows through the line is ambiguous. Hence such a connection is not permissible. However, it 11 = 12 = I, then the current in the line is | But, such a connection is not necessary as only one current source serves the purpose. tical current sour ees Connected in series Two ideal current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent ideal current source Practical current sources connected in parallel \ ¢ 5 urce transformation: Accurrent source Magnitude of the curre Or 9 voltage source drives current through its load resistance and the nt depends on the value of the load resistance. Consider a practi resistance RL ical voltage source and a5 shown in the figure @ practical current source connected to the same load R1's in figure represents the internal resistance of the voltage source VS and current source IS. current Two sources are said to be identical, when they produce identical terminal voltage VL and load IL rent source respectively, with The circuit in figure represents a practical voltage source & a practical current sou load connected to both the sources. ina me, The terminal voltage VL and load current IL across their terminals are sa {ted box of figure are Hence the practical voltage source & practical current source shown in the dot equal it voltage & short circuit current. The two equivalent sources should also provide the same open circuit voltage From fig (b) From fig (a) Vs R+Rz +R, we R*Re vs «RRL 'S with its internal resistance R can be converted Ice a voltage source v: PR, with its internal resist TM parallel with its intes an internal resistance R. oe Rconnes e nected in parallel allel with it. Simitarh ee arly a current source | Nn be converted into a voltage source V = IR in series with its R-L-€ Parameters 1. Resistance: Resistance is th: 7 at pr erty of a cir ' Para uit element which opposes the flow of elect of electric current and in doin, B SO converts ele S electrical energy into heat eat energy. Itis the ont Proporti tionality factor in ohm’s law relatin nt jaw relating voltage and current, Ohm’s law states that th direct! © voltage drop acr ¥v Proportional to the current row a Conductor of given length and area of cross section is lowing through it. =GV Where the re: ciprocal procal of resistance is called conductance G. The unit of resistance is ohm and the unit of conductance is mho or Siemens. When current t flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the collision of electrons with other ats ‘omic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is converted to heat and is given by the expression P= vis i2R where iis the resistor in amps, and vis the voltage across the resistor in volts Energy lost in a resistance in time tis given by wd Pat = Pt PRe 2. Inductance: change of magnitude and fh, when twistedinto a electromagnetic a material by virtue of which it opposes any through conductor. A wire of certain lengt in the magnitude of the current changes the Inductance is the property of direction of electric current passing coil becomes a basic conductor. A change i field. ase in curre Frent expands ge int ct xbands the field & decrease in curent red ee meee ae reduces it. A change in current produces Se ieiaaaiee a voltage across the coil according to Faradays laws of a Induced Voltage v= a V= volta Voltage across inductor in volt Current through inductor “ nm di= 4 vat amps Integrating both sides, all fe zl ve 3 a Pe ‘ower absorbed by the inductor pP=vi-ui dt Energy stored by the inductor Conclusions: 1) v= The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it's constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to de. (dt = 0) gives an infinite voltage across or, the current cannot change abruptly. An the 2) For minute change in current within zero time inductor which is physically not at all feasible. In an induct cross de voltage. inductor behaves as open circuit just after switching a 3) The inductor can store finite amount of enerey, even if the voltage across the inductor is zero: ¢ it is also called as 8 non 4) A pure inductor never dissipates ener8y, Jement. However, physical inductor dissipates power d it only stores it. Henc jue to internal resistance. dissipative passive fe current in a 2H inductor r; ‘alses ata rate of 2A/s .Find the voltage across the inductor the BY stored in the ‘Magnetic field at after 2sec hs vet 22 = av 3. Capacitance: 1) Acapacitor consists oft dielectric medium. : i 2) Itis a circuit element which pe t which is capable of storing electrical energy in its electric field. ‘pacitance is its capacity to store electrical energ 4) Capacitance is the proportionality const 7 to the potential. relating the charge an the conducting plates Charge on the capacitor qiv a=cy Where °C’ is the capacitance in farads, if q is charge in coulombs and V is the potential difference across the Capacitor in volts. The current flowing in the circuit is rate of flow of charge aq dw 4 de a” dt =cae he Gap The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the dielectric medium & the physical dimensions. For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance Ais the surface area of plates Dis the separation between plates € is the absolute permeability of medium€0 is the absolute permeability of free space €r is the relative permeability of medium aq ee coe av i dtc fiat av The power absorbed by the capacitor P = vi= . typ ae fede Vo cea, Energy stored in the capacitor we 4 2 + ev 2 Joules 's stored in the electric field set up by the voltage act Conclusions: 1. The current in a capacitor is zero, if the voltage across it is constant, that means the capacitor acts as an open circuit to de 2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current through the capacitor, which is physically impossibi In a fixed capacitor, the voltage bruptly A capacitor behaves as short circuit just after switching across dc voltage The capacitor can store a finite cannot change amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it hence it is called non-dissipative element Kirchhoff's Laws: Kirchhoff’s laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by the latter. \e equivalent resistance Kirchhoff's laws, two in number, are particularly useful in determining the equi re ee of a complicated network of conductors and for calculating the currents flowing conductors. 1. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) meeting at a point (or junction) is In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at 3 P Zero That is the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving that junction Consider the case of a network shown in Fig (a). hi+(-l2)+(1a)+(+14) +15) = 0 Iytlelarla-ls = 0 or Ita = latls4ls Or utgoing currents Incoming currents In any electrical rical network, the al; of the Conductors in any dosed eaih (s aie e.m.f.’s. in that Path is zero. Path (or meshy per oauets of currents and resistances in each Ma network plus the algebraic sum of the qT hatis, SIR + Sem.f=Oroundamesh It should be no ted that algebrai rosea IBebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the That is, if we stai z rt fr starting point, then gee a articular junction and go round the mesh til we come back to the qi © Must be at the same potential with which we started. Hence, it means ti Seen aes all the sources of emf met on the way must necessarily be equal to the ps in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus. Determination of Voltage Sign In applying Kirchhoff's laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and [Link]. (a) Sign of Battery E.M.F. Arise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. That is, if we go from the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. And on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign. 5 The sign of the battery e.m.f is independent of the direction L a ts Ye ej 4}, dt we -B 4- Nn +8 Rise in . ; mat = motion = motion Voltage Voltage Noite cde vo Vahe Voltage rR ; (0) Sign of orop Now, take the aa tor (Fig. 2.4). If we go through ough a resistor in the same direction as current, then there is _ isa fallin potential because current Current flows from a higher toa lower potential lence, this volta, r e ina posite 18¢ fall should be taken -ve. However, if d we go in a direction opposite to that of current, then there is a a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign. Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig ‘As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the following signs : (fall in potential) Ris -ve JpRzis -ve (fall in potential) IaRyis + ve (rise in potential) IaRais -ve (fall in potential) Eris -ve (fall in potential) E,is + ve (rise in potential) Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get HR: ~ Re 1aR3~ la Re E2 +E = 0 or TR + Ro ~1aRs + tae = Ey Ey Assumed Direction of Current: in applying Kirchhoff's laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow may be Gasumed elther clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current i not the actual Girection, then on solving the question, the current will be found to have a minus sigh Ir the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the sane ns acteul dharction However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the same Should be used throughout the solution of the question Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and ac voltages and currents. However, in the case Bes, any e.m.f. of self-inductance or that existing across a capacitor should be also taken into account. IcTRICAL CIRCUITS SEE i FEE vourace. Ny Po . CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS FoR passiv The Three Passive Element pera mi 5 are Resistance, poe cicee cece ‘ance, Inductance and ¢ 'age-current relat oo ae he behavior of these three ele come given in the table. “ee, Element | 6. | Basic Relation Voltage across, lf Current Known Valiage a oe nt through, IfVolage Known | | fam oven + | | — Table —— 1. Acurrent wa waveform fl lowing through an inductor o choolage etm owing trough an inductor of mis shown inthe igure Obtain and sketch the wavlorm a Solution: From the given waveform, For Octe2, i(t) is a straight line of slope=(100/2)=50 Therefore, i(t}=50t and “=50 For 2

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