SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

A superconductor is a material that attains superconductivity, a state of matter with no electrical

resistance below a certain temperature, in the presence of magnetic fields, and under any applied
current.
What is a Superconductor?
Superconductors are different from ordinary conductors, such as copper. Unlike regular conductors
whose resistance gradually reduces, the superconductor’s resistance drops to zero below a fixed
temperature, which is the critical temperature. At this temperature, a superconductor can conduct
electricity with no resistance, which means no heat, sound, or other forms of energy would be
discharged from the material when it reaches the “critical temperature” (Tc). To become
superconductive, most materials must be in an incredibly low energy state (very cold). Presently,
excessive energy must be used in the cooling process, making superconductors uneconomical and
inefficient. A study is underway to design compounds that become superconductive at higher
temperatures.
Superconductor Definition
“A superconductor is defined as a substance that offers no resistance to the electric current when
it becomes colder than a critical temperature.”
Some of the popular examples of superconductors are aluminium, magnesium diboride, niobium,
copper oxide, yttrium barium and iron pnictides. These substances superconduct at temperatures
below the critical temperature.
Critical Temperature for Superconductors
The critical temperature for superconductors is the temperature at which the electrical resistivity of
metal falls to zero. Most materials show superconducting phase transitions at low temperatures.
The highest critical temperature was about 23 K until 1986. In 2020, a room-temperature
superconductor made from carbon, hydrogen and sulfur under pressures of around 270 gigapascals
was identified to possess the highest temperature at which any material has shown
superconductivity.
The table below lists the critical temperature for various materials

Material Critical Temperature (Tc) in K

Aluminium 1.2 K

Indium 3.4 K

Mercury 4.2 K

Lead 7.2 K

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Superconductor Working
When the temperature of the metal decreases below the critical temperature, the electrons in the
metal form bonds known as Cooper pairs. The electrons can’t offer any electrical resistance when
bonded like this—allowing electricity to flow through the metal smoothly.
Nevertheless, this only works at low temperatures. When the metal gets warm, the electrons gain
enough energy to break the bonds of the Cooper pairs and go back to offering resistance.
Superconductor Graph
The below graph shows the temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity of normal metal
and a superconductor.

A graph of conductor and superconductor resistance plotted against temperature.

Superconductor Types
Superconductors come in two distinct types: type I and type II.
Type I Superconductors
A type I superconductor consists of fundamental conductive elements that are used in everything
from electrical wiring to computer microchips. Presently, type I superconductors have critical
temperatures between 0.000325 °K and 7.8 °K. A few of the type I superconductors need
tremendous amounts of pressure in order to achieve the superconductive state. One such material
is sulfur, which needs a pressure of 9.3 million atmospheres (9.4 x 1011 N/m2) and a temperature

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of 17 °K to reach superconductivity. Approximately half of the elements in the periodic table are
superconductive.
Type II Superconductors
A type II superconductor comprises metallic compounds such as lead or copper. They achieve a
superconductive state at much higher temperatures compared to type I superconductors. Type II
superconductors can be penetrated by a magnetic field, whereas type I cannot.
Superconductor Properties
The superconducting materials exhibit some unique properties necessary for current technology.
The research on these properties is still going on to utilise these properties in various fields. The
four most important properties of superconductors are listed below:
Infinite Conductivity
A material has zero resistance in the superconducting state. When the temperature of the material
is below the critical temperature, its resistance abruptly lowers to zero. For example, Mercury
shows zero resistance below 4 Kelvin.
Critical Temperature
The critical temperature is the temperature below which the material changes from conductors to
superconductors. The critical temperature is also called transition temperature. The transition from
conductors to superconductors is sudden and complete.
Magnetic Field Expulsion
When a material transitions from the normal to the superconducting state, it expels magnetic fields
from its interior; this is called the Meissner effect.
Critical Magnetic Field,
The value of the magnetic field beyond which the superconductors return to conducting state, is
known as the critical magnetic field. The value of the critical magnetic field is inversely
proportional to the temperature.
Superconductor Applications
 Superconductors are used in particle accelerators, generators, transportation, computing,
electric motors, medical, power transmission, etc.
 Superconductors are primarily employed for creating powerful electromagnets in MRI
scanners.
 These conductors are used to transmit power for long distances.
 They are used in memory or storage elements.

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How do Superconductors work?
When the temperature of the metal decreases below the critical temperature, the electrons in the
metal form bonds known as Cooper pairs. The electrons can’t offer any electrical resistance when
bonded like this—allowing electricity to flow through the metal smoothly.
How are Superconductors made?
When certain compounds like lead and mercury are cooled to extremely cold temperatures, they
become superconductors.

APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS
Superconductors, materials with zero electrical resistance at very low temperatures, have a wide
range of potential applications, particularly in areas where high magnetic fields, efficient energy
transfer, or extremely fast computing are needed; here's a breakdown of their use in particle
accelerators, transportation, power transmission, electric motors, and computing:.
i. Particle Accelerators:
 High-Field Magnets:
Superconducting magnets are crucial in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC). These magnets generate powerful magnetic fields to guide and accelerate particles to high
speeds. Their ability to operate with minimal energy loss is essential for maintaining high particle
energies and efficient operation.
 Detectors:
Superconducting detectors are used to identify and measure particles produced in particle
collisions. These detectors often utilize sensitive superconducting materials like SQUIDs
(Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices) to detect very weak magnetic fields.
 Radio Frequency Cavities:
Superconducting radio frequency cavities are used to accelerate particles within the accelerator.
They efficiently transfer energy to the particles, allowing for higher particle energies and shorter
acceleration times.
ii. Transportation:
 Maglev Trains:
Magnetic levitation (maglev) trains utilize superconducting magnets to levitate the train above the
tracks, eliminating friction and enabling high speeds with minimal energy consumption.
 High-Speed Rail:
While not all maglev trains use superconducting magnets, some systems employ them for their
powerful magnetic fields and efficient operation.
[Link] Transmission:

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  Reduced Losses:
Superconducting cables can significantly reduce energy losses during power transmission over
long distances, leading to more efficient and reliable power delivery.
 Grid Modernization:
Integrating superconducting cables into the power grid can improve grid stability and capacity.
[Link] Motors:
 High-Efficiency Motors:
Superconducting motors can achieve higher efficiency than conventional motors due to their
ability to generate stronger magnetic fields.
 Compact Design:
The use of superconducting magnets allows for smaller and more compact motor designs.
v. Computing:
 High-Performance Computing:
Superconducting circuits are used in high-performance computing systems to achieve faster
processing speeds and lower power consumption.
 Quantum Computing:
Some research focuses on developing superconducting quantum computers, which could
potentially solve complex problems that are intractable for classical computers.
 Memory Devices:
Superconducting materials are being explored for use in advanced memory devices due to their
unique properties.