4.

Output Stages and Power Amplifiers

Introduction
An amplifier receives a signal from some pick up transducer or other input source and provides a larger version of
the signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage. An input transducer signal is generally small (a few
mill volts from a cassette or CD input, or a few micro–volts from an antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently
to operate an output device (speaker or other power handling device). In small-signal amplifiers the main factors
are usually amplification linearity and magnitude of gain. Since signal voltage and current are small in a small-
signal amplifier, the amount of power-handling capacity and power efficiency are of little concern. A voltage
amplifier provides amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input signal. Large–signal or power
amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power to an output load to drive a speaker or other power
device, typically a few watts to tens of watts. The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the circuit's power
efficiency, the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling, and the impedance matching to
the output device.

4.1 Classification of Output Stages

An amplifier can be classified as:
a) According to frequency range
• DC amplifier (0 frequency)
• Audio amplifier (20 Hz to 20 KHz)
• Video amplifier (up to few MHz)
• Radio frequency amplifier (a few KHz to l00’s of MHz)
• Ultra high frequency amplifier (l00’s or 1000 of MHz)
b) According to use
• Current amplifier
• Voltage amplifier
• Power amplifier
c) According to the type of load
• Untuned amplifier
• Tuned amplifier
d) According to the method of operation
• Class A amplifier
• Class B amplifier
• Class AB amplifier
• Class C amplifier
• Class D amplifier

4.1.1 Class A
Transistor is so biased that output (or collector) current flows for full 360º of the ac cycle. This operation
requires the Q-point to be biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the output may vary up

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 and down without going to a high-enough voltage to be limited by the supply voltage, or too low to approach
the lower supply level, or 0V as shown in below figure:
V0

Power supply
level
Full 360º output swing
Class A dc
bias level

Fig.: Output waveform for class A amplifier

Class A operation means that transistor operates in active (or linear) region of its load line. So output
waveform is exactly similar to the input waveform. (high fidelity)
It has a maximum efficiency of 25% (without transformer) and 50% (with transformer) and minimum
efficiency of 0%.
C > B > A ( denotes efficiency)
Vcc

Class A
Input Output
Amplifier

Fig.: Block diagram of class A amplifier

4.1.2 Class B
A class B circuits provides an output signal varying over one-half the input signal cycle, or for 180º of
signal as shown in figure. The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0V, with the output then varying from
this bias point for a half cycle. Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one
half–cycle is present. Two class B operations–one to provide output on the positive-output half cycle and
another to provide operation on the negative-output half cycle are necessary. The combined half-cycles then
provide an output for a full 360º of operation. This type of connection is referred to as push-pull operation.
The class B operation by itself creates a much distorted output signal since reproduction of the input takes
place for only 180º of the output signal swing.
Vcc

Class B
Input Output
Amplifier

Fig.: Block diagram of class B amplifier

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 Vo

 t
 
Fig.: Output waveform for class B amplifier

4.1.3 Class AB
An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base-current level of class B and above one-half
the supply voltage level of class A, this bias condition is class AB. Class AB operation still requires a push-
pull connection to achieve a full output cycle, but the dc bias level is usually closer to the zero-base-current
level for better power efficiency. For class AB operation, the output signal swing occurs between 180º and
360º and is neither class A nor class B operation.

Vo

t
  
Fig.: Output waveform for class AB amplifier

4.1.4 Class C
The output of a class C amplifier is biased for operation at less than 180º of the cycle and will operation
only with a tuned (resonant) circuit, which provides a full cycle of operation for the tuned or resonant
frequency. This operating class is therefore used in special areas of tuned circuits, such as radio or
communications.
Vo

t
  
Fig.: Output waveform for class C amplifier

4.1.5 Class D
This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse (digital) signals, which are ON for a short
interval and OFF for a longer interval. Using digital techniques make it possible to obtain a signal that
varies over the full cycle (using sample and hold circuitry) to recreate the output from many pieces of input
signal. The major advantage of class D operation is that the amplifier is "ON" (using power) only for short
intervals and the overall efficiency can practically be very high.

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 Vo

Fig.: Output waveform for class D amplifier

4.1.6 Amplifier Efficiency

The power amplifier efficiency of an amplifier defined as the ratio of output power to input power, improves
(gets higher) going from class A to class D. In general terms we see that a class A amplifier, with dc bias
at one-half the supply voltage level, uses a good amount of power to maintain bias, even with no input
signal applied. This results in very poor efficiency, especially with small input signals, when very little ac
power is delivered to the load. In fact, the maximum efficiency of a class A circuit, occurring for the largest
output voltage and current swing, is only 25% with a direct or series fed load connection and 50% with a
transformer connection to the load, Class B operation, with no dc bias power for no input signal, can be
shown to provide a maximum efficiency that reaches 78.5%. Class D operation can achieve power
efficiency over 90% and provides the most efficient operation of all the operating classes. Since class AB
falls between class A and class B in bias, it also falls between their efficiency ratings between 25% (or
50%) and 78.5%.

Comparisons of Amplifier Classes

Class A AB B C D
Operating cycle 360º 180º to 360º 180º less than 180º pulse operation

Maximum power 25%(for series fed) in between greater 78.5% Greater

efficiency and 50%(for than A and less than B over 90%
transformer coupled) than B

4.2 Class A Output Stage

4.2.1 Series-Fed Class A Amplifier

Vcc

Ic Load
RB Rc

IB
C1

Power Transistor

Vi

Fig.: Series-fed class A amplifier

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 • It is called series fed as load RC is connected in series with transistor output.
• The difference between series fed (large signal) and small signal version is that signals handled by
large signal circuit are in the range of volts and transistor used is a power transistor that is capable of
operating in the range of few to tens of watts.
• Series fed circuit is not the best to use as large signal amplifier because of its poor power efficiency.
•  is less than 100 (high current or power gain but low voltage gain ).
• DC bias operation:
The dc bias set by VCC and RB fixes the dc base-bias current at
VCC – 0.7V
IB =
RB
With the collector current then being
IC = IB
With the collector– emitter voltage then
VCE = VCC – ICRC
Ic
VCC
Rc
dc load line
Q-point
ICQ IBQ

VCE
0 VCEQ = VCC VCC
2
Fig.: Transistor characteristics showing load line and
Q-point
• First DC load line is drawn using valve of VCC and RC since they are constant. (VCC & RC are constant).
• The quiescent point is calculated using above equations.
• If the dc bias collector current is set at one-half the possible signal swing (between 0 and VCC/RC) the
largest collector current swing will be possible. Additionally, if the quiescent collector is set at one
half the supply voltages (0 and VCC) the largest voltage swing will be possible.
• With the Q-point set at this optimum bias point, the power considerations for the given circuit (series
fed circuit) are determined.
• AC operation:
When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier for the given circuit, the output will vary from its
dc bias operating voltage and current. For the current this limiting condition is either zero current at
the low end or VCC/RC at the high end of its swing. For the collector-emitter voltage the limit is either
0V or the supply voltage VCC.

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 Ic
Vcc Input signal
Rc

Q-point

Output
current swing
0 VCE
Vcc
Vopp =VCC

Output voltage swing

Fig.: Amplifier input and output signal variation (ideal case) for class A amplifier.
Maximum efficiency for ideal case:
2
Vo
Output power (minimum), Po(ac) = IoVo =
RC
But,
Vopp VCC Vopp
Vo = = [Vrms = Vo = ]
2 2 2 2 2 2
[Vopp means peak to peak output voltage= VCC for ideal case from figure]
Then,
(VCC / 2 2)2 VCC2
 Po(ac) = = .......... (i)
RC 8RC
Input power from collector supply VCC,
Pi(dc) = VCC Idc(avg)
= VCC. ICQ
VCEQ
= VCC.
RC
VCC VCC
= VCC. [ VCEQ = , from figure]
2RC 2
VCC2
or, Pi(dc) = ....... (ii)
2RC
Po(ac)
 Maximum efficiency () = × 100%
Pi(dc)
VCC2 2RC
= × 100%
8RC VCC2
= 25%
Therefore, max = 25% for series-fed class A amplifier.

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 V0

Power supply
level
Full 360º output swing
Class A dc
bias level

Fig.: Output waveform for class A amplifier

General efficiency of class A amplifier: (Series fed class A amplifier):
VCC
DC biasing is set at VCEQ = and ICQ is chosen such that it doesn't exceed the maximum collector
2
dissipation for the transistor Q1.
VCE or V0

VCC

VCEQ = Vcc
2
VCE max Vop

VCE min
t
0

Fig.: Graphical analysis of series-fed class A amplifier with resistive load

Here, from figure
VCE max + VCE min VCC
VCEQ = = ...... (i)
2 2
VCE max – VCE min
Vop = ....................(ii) (Vop → peak output voltage)
2
The power supplied by dc source
Pi(dc) = VCC × ICQ
VCEQ
= VCC ×
RC
VCC
= VCC ×
2RC
(VCE max + VCE min)2
= .......... (iii) (from figure)
2RC

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 Similarly, output power obtained from amplifier as
2
Vo
Po(ac) =
RC
VOPP
Where, Vo =
2 2
2VOP
=
2 2
VOP VCE max – VCE min
= =
2 2 2
VCE max – VCE min2 1
Po(ac) = .
 2 2  RC
(VCE max – VCE min)2
or, Po(ac) = .......... (iv)
8RC
Thus, efficiency of amplifier
Po(ac)
gen = × 100%
Pi(dc)
(VCEmax – VCE min)2 100 %
= ×
(VCEmax + VCEmin)2 4
VCEmax – VCEmin 2
 gen =  × 25%
VCEmax + VCEmin
Note: From above equation we can see that most series-fed circuits will provide efficiencies of much
less than 25%.

4.2.2 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier

• It has better efficiency of 50% because no power is wasted in collector resistor RC as is series fed.
• A matching transformer (step-down) is provided to couple the high impedance collector circuit to low
impedance load.
+Vcc

N2 RL
R N1

C1

Vi

Fig.: Transformer coupled class A amplifier

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 The transformer (dc) winding resistance determines the dc load line for the above circuit. Typically,
this dc resistor is small (ideally 0). Thus, a 0 dc load line is a straight vertical line.
Ic

dc load line
Ic max

IOP
Q-point

ac load line
V
O 2Vcc CE
VCEQ = Vcc
VOP

VOPP = 2Vcc
Fig.: Characteristics curve showing DC load line and AC load line.
Maximum efficiency for ideal case:
Here, Input power,
VCC VCC2
Pi(dc) = VCC  ICQ = VCC  = [From figure]
Z Z
Also,
Vo2
Po(ac) =
Z
Vopp
But, Vo =
2 2
2 VCC VCC
= [From figure] =
2 2 2
Thus,
VCC2
 Po(ac) =
2Z
Po(ac)
 Efficiency () = × 100%
Pi(dc)
× 100 % = 50 
VCC2 Z VCC2
= ×
2Z VCC2 VCC
max = 50%
Hence, the efficiency of transformer coupled amplifier is 50% for ideal case i.e. when Vopp = 2VCC.
General efficiency:

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 VCE or V0

2VCC

VCEQ = V
CC
VCE max Vop

VCE min
t
0

Fig.: Graphical analysis of transformer coupled class A amplifier with resistive load
We know, for transformer coupled class A amplifier
VCEQ = VCC
VCE (max) + VCE (min)
= (from figure)
2
Then,
VCEQ
Pi(dc) = VCC 
Z
VCC VCC2
= VCC  =
Z Z
[VCE (max) + VCE (min)]2
or, Pi(dc) =
4Z
Also,
Vo2
Po(ac) =
Z
But
Vopp 2Vop Vop VCEmax – VCEmin
Vo = Vrms = = = =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
VCE (max) – VCE (min)2 1
 Po(ac) = 
 2 2  Z
(VCE max – VCE min)2
=
8Z
Po(ac)
gen = × 100%
Pi(dc)
VCEmax – VCEmin2
 gen = 50  %
VCEmax + VCEmin

EXAMPLE 4.1:
Calculate the efficiency of a transformer coupled class A amplifier for a supply of 12VDC and output
of (i) VP = 12V and (ii) VP = 6V. [065 Chaitra (R)]
Solution:
We have,

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 For class A transformer coupled amplifier,
VCE max – VCE min2
gen = 50 × 
VCE max + VCE min %

= 50 × 
VPP 2
2VCEQ % (from fig. 4.2 (g))

= 50 × 
VPP 2
2VCC %

= 50 × 
2VP 2  VP 2
2VCC % = 50 × VCC %
(i) When VP = 12 V

 = 50 ×  = 50%
12 2
12
(ii) When VP = 6V

 = 50 ×   = 50 × = 12.5 %
6 2 1
12 4

4.3 Class B Output Stage

Class B operation is provided when the dc bias leaves the transistor biased just OFF, the transistor turning
ON when the ac signal is applied. This is essentially no bias and the transistor conducts current for only
one half of the signal cycle i.e. IC flows for only 180º of ac cycle. Operating point is set at cut-off. To obtain
output for the full cycle of signal, it is necessary to use two transistors and have each conduct on opposite
half-cycles, the combined operation providing a full cycle of output signal. Since one part of the circuit
pushed the signal high during one half-cycle and the other parts pulls the signal low during the other half
cycle, the circuit is referred to as a push-pull circuit, with each half operating on alternate half-cycles, the
load then receiving a signal for the full ac cycle. The power transistor used in the push-pull circuit are
capable of delivering the desired power to load, and the class B operation of these transistors provides
greater efficiency then was possible using a single transistor. Class B amplifier has maximum efficiency of
78.5% and minimum efficiency of 50%.

One - half circuit

Load

One - half circuit

Fig.: Block diagram of class B

The main advantage of class B/AB amplifier over the class A amplifier is that there is very little current in
the transistor when there is no input signal. This results in low power dissipation when there is no signal.

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 4.3.1 Efficiency of Class B Amplifier
Let VOP be the peak output voltage produced by class B amplifier. Let RL (or rp) be the equivalent load
resistance in the output circuit.
Then,
V 2r m s
PO(ac) =
rp
(VOP/ 2)2 VOP2
= = ....... (i)
rp 2rp
Let VCC be the dc source voltage and the equivalent dc current supplied by the dc source is the average dc
value of the ac output current which may be expressed as,
2 2 VOP
Idc = I =
 OP  rp

Thus, dc power supplied by source is,

2VOP
Pi (dc) = VCC  Idc = VCC  ......(ii)
rp
Po (ac)
 Efficiency () = × 100%
Pi (dc)
VOP2 prp
= × 100%
2rp 2VOP VCC
VOP
 =  25  % and is a general expression
VCC

Condition for maximum efficiency:

When VOP  VCC
max = 25  % = 78.5%

Condition for minimum efficiency:

Power loss by class-B amplifier,
PLoss = Pi(dc) – Po(ac)
2VCC. VOP VOP2
or, PLoss = – ............ (iii)
 rp 2 rp
Differentiating (iii) with respect to output voltage VOP,
dPLoss 2VCC VOP
= –
dVOP rp rp
For maximum loss,
dPLoss 2VCC VOP
=0= –
dVOP rp rp
VOP 2VCC
or, =
rp rp
2
or, VOP = VCC ....... (iv)


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 or VOP = 0.6366VCC
Thus, when output voltage is 63.66% of maximum possible output voltage the efficiency of class B
amplifier becomes minimum which may be expressed as,
VOP
min = 25% [From general formula]
VCC
0.6366VCC
or, min = 25% [From (iv)]
VCC

min = 50%

4.3.2 Class B Amplifier Circuits

A number of circuit arrangements for obtaining class B operation are possible.

Phase Splitter using BJT

+VCC
180º out of phase
RC
R1

Vin C1
R2
C2
} Push-pull
i/p signals

RE C3 Same phase

Fig.: Phase splitter using BJT

Inverting

Ampl
V1 ifier Out of phase
EF V1

EF V2
same phase

Fig.: Same output of input through emitter & 180º out of (opposite output of input) phase through
collector.

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 Transformer Less Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Amplifier
+V CC

Q1(npn)
emitter follower
Vin

Q2(pnp) RL

–VCC

Fig.: Complementary Symmetry push pull amplifier

VRL

crossover
distortion
(both Q1 and Q2 off)

• A single input signal is applied to base of both transistors

• During first half cycle Q1 (npn) transistor will be forward biased as it operates in active mode while
Q2 is at cut-off. So current IC flows from transistor Q1 to load to ground as shown in fig. 4.7(c).
• During negative half cycle, Q2 (pnp) will be biased into conduction and Q1 at cut-off. So, current flows
from ground to –VCC as shown in figure.

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 Transfer characteristics:
V0

- 0.5V
Vi
+ 0.5V

Fig.: Transfer characterstics of class B amplifier

There exists a range of Vi centered around zero where both transistor are cut off (from range –0.5 V
to +0.5 V) and output voltage is zero. This dead band results in the crossover distortion. i.e. when the
base voltage is zero both transistor are OFF and the input signal must exceed VBE before a transistor
conducts, so there is a time when no transistor is conducting. This results crossover distortion.
The effect of crossover distortion on sine wave input is shown in fig.
V0 VO

output distortion

Vi t

Vi
(both Q1 and Q2 off)

input undistorted

t
Fig.: Effect of crossover distortion
Reducing crossover distortion:
The crossover distortion of a class B output stage can be reduced substantially employing a high-gain
op-amp and overall negative feedback as shown in figure.

+ VCC

– V'0 V0
A0
Vi +

RL

-VCC

Fig.: Reducing crossover distortion

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 The  0.7 V dead band is reduced to 0.7 /Ao volts, where Ao is the dc gain of the op-amp. A more
practical method for reducing and almost eliminating crossover distortion is found in the class AB
operation.

4.4 Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Stages

Transformer Coupled Class B Push Pull Amplifier
VCC

ICQ1
Q1 IL

Vin
R1

R2

Q2
RL
ICQ2

Fig.: Push-pull circuit

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 • When Vin = 0, V1 = V2 = 0 then ICQ1  ICQ2 = 0
• During first half cycle, transistor Q1 conducts whereas Q2 is at cut-off mode. So ICQ1 current flows
through transformer which results in first half cycle of signal to the load.
• During next half cycle, Q2 conducts whereas Q1 is at cutoff mode. So ICQ2 current flows through
transformer resulting in second half cycle.
• The output transformer will combine the two outputs of Q1 & Q2.

Vo

 t
 

Fig.: Output waveform for class B amplifier

Cross-over distortion:
V0

0.5V
Q1
t
Q2

cross over
distortion

Fig.: Cross-over distortion

In the result of small currents for V < VThreshold the output is non-linear and is much smaller that it would be
if response were linear. This effect is called cross-over distortion. When unbiased, a class B push pull
amplifier has no output until the input voltage exceeds approx 0.7V or 0.5V. This results in clipping between
positive and negative half cycles. This effect is called crossover distortion.

Elimination:
We need to apply slight forward bias to each diode of transistor i.e. the Q-point should be slightly above
cut-off to avoid this distortion. In order to minimize crossover distortion, transistor must operate in a class
AB mode where a small stand by current flows at zero excitation which is described in section 4.4.

Efficiency

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 IC1(mA)

IO P
Q point
0 VCE1 VCE 2

VCC

VCC

IC2(mA)

Fig.: Composite characteristics for class B push-pull amplifier

Here,
PO(ac) = IoVo
Vo2
=
ZL
(VCC / 2)2 VCC2
= = .......... (i)
ZL 2ZL
= maximum possible output power
Pi(dc) = VCCIdc
2
= VCC  I
 OP
2 VCC
= VCC
 ZL
2 VCC2
= ........ (ii)
 ZL
 Efficiency,
PO(ac)
= × 100%
Pi(dc)
VCC2  ZL
= . . × 100%
2ZL 2 VCC2
=  25%
Therefore,

 = 78.5%= maximum efficiency

4.5 Class AB Output Stage

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