TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Thermal physics, naturally, begins with the definitions of temperature and heat. The temperature
of a body is a measure of its hotness or coldness, A measure of temperature is obtained by using
a thermometer. The thermometers use some measurable properties of substances which are
sensitive to changes in temperature.
Heat is the net energy transferred from one object to another because of a temperature
difference. The total mechanical energy of all molecules of a system or body is referred to as the
internal energy of the system or body.
Temperature Scales and Thermometers
There are basically three different types of temperature scales. These are Celsius temperature
scale, Fahrenheit temperature scale and thermodynamic (Kelvin) temperature scale. All these
temperature scales depend on the properties of a particular substance. Each of these scales has
two fixed points where the temperature is always the same and easily reproducible and reliable.
On the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0℃ and boils at 100℃, while on Fahrenheit scale, water
freezes at 32℉ and boils at 212℉. This is shown in Figure 1.1 In the thermodynamic
temperature scale, the fixed point is the triple point of water. It is the temperature at which
ice, water and water vapour coexist in equilibrium at a pressure of 4.58 mmHg and is
defined as 273.16 K; denoted by 𝑻𝒕𝒓 .
Figure 1.1: Temperature scales
1
The temperature scale is based on two important things. They are fixed points and
thermometric property.
FIXED POINTS
There are two types of fixed points:
(1) One fixed point (thermodynamic (kelvin) temperature). It is called the standard scale or
scientific scale.
𝑇(𝑋) 𝑋 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
= = = (1.1)
𝑇(𝑋𝑡𝑟 ) 𝑋𝑡𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑡𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑡𝑟
Triple point temperature is 273.15K.
𝑋
𝑇(𝑋) = 273.15 × (1.2)
𝑋𝑡𝑟
(2) Two – fixed points: It is a temperature scale that is based on two- fixed points.
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0 𝜃℃ − 0℃
= (1.3)
𝑋100 − 𝑋0 100℃ − 0℃
𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0
𝜃=( ) × 100 (1.4)
𝑋100 − 𝑋0
The conversions between the three scales are:
5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 − 32) (1.5)
9
2
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇 + 32 (1.6)
5 𝐶
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15 (1.7)
where 𝑇𝐹 , 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐾 are Fahrenheit, Celsius and kelvin temperatures, respectively.
Thermometers are the instruments designed to measure temperature.
There are many types of thermometers. Their operation always depends on some physical
properties of matter that change with temperature. Thermometric property is a physical
measurable property that varies linearly and continuously with temperature and is
constant at constant temperature. These properties are known as thermometric
properties. The following are examples of thermometric properties:
(1) most solids and liquids expand when they are heated;
(2) electrical resistance changes when heated;
(3) in a gas, pressure and volume change when the gas is heated;
(4) radiation from the surface of a body depends on the surface temperature.
The following table shows some of the thermometric properties of matter that are used in the
various thermometers:
3
Advantages & Disadvantages of Mercury as thermometric substance
Advantages & Disadvantages of Alcohol as thermometric substance
Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Mercury or Alcohol in Thermometers
4
Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of most materials is increased, they expand. This expansion in the length,
area or volume of the material is called thermal expansion.
Linear expansion
Suppose that a rod of a particular material has length 𝑳𝟎 at some initial temperature 𝜽𝟏 . If the rod
is subjected to heat such that its length changes to 𝑳 when the temperature changes to 𝜽𝟐 , then
the coefficient of linear expansion 𝜶 which describes the thermal expansion properties of a
particular material is defined as:
Linear expansivity (𝜶) is defined as increase in length per unit length per degree rise in
temperature.
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝜶= (𝟏. 𝟏)
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 × 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆
∆𝑳 𝑳 − 𝑳𝟎
𝜶= = (𝟏. 𝟐)
𝑳𝟎 ∆𝜽 𝑳𝟎 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
Rearranging equation (1.2), we have
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝜽) (𝟏. 𝟑)
The unit is 𝑲−𝟏 or (℃)−𝟏.
Similarly, the coefficient of area expansion 𝜷 which describes the thermal expansion properties
of a particular material is defined as:
Area expansivity (𝜷) is defined as increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temperature.
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝜷= (𝟏. 𝟒)
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆
∆𝑨 𝑨 − 𝑨𝟎
𝜷= = (𝟏. 𝟓)
𝑨𝟎 ∆𝜽 𝑨𝟎 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
The new area is given as:
𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝜽) (𝟏. 𝟔)
Where 𝜷 = 𝟐𝜶. The unit is 𝑲−𝟏 or (℃)−𝟏.
Experiments show that increase in volume ∆𝑽 for both solid and liquid materials is
approximately proportional to both the temperature change ∆𝜽 and the initial volume 𝑽𝟎 :
5
Volume (Cubic) expansivity (𝜸) is defined as increase in volume per unit volume per degree
rise in temperature.
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝜸= (𝟏. 𝟕)
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 × 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆
∆𝑽 𝑽 − 𝑽𝟎
𝜸= = (𝟏. 𝟖)
𝑽𝟎 ∆𝜽 𝑽𝟎 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
The new area is given as:
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜸∆𝜽) (𝟏. 𝟗)
Where 𝜸 = 𝟑𝜶. The unit is 𝑲−𝟏 or (℃)−𝟏.
Real and Apparent Expansivity
Because the expansion of liquids is complicated by the expansion of their containers, it is
necessary to distinguish between the real and the apparent cubic expansivity of a liquid.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟
The real cubic expansivity of a liquid can be derived from the above relationship.
The real (or absolute) cubic expansivity (𝜸𝒓 ) of a liquid is the increase in volume per unit
volume per degree rise in temperature.
The apparent cubic expansivity (𝜸𝒂 ) of a liquid is the increase in volume per unit volume per
degree rise in temperature when the liquid is heated in an expansible vessel.
Because the apparent expansivity depends also on the cubic expansivity of the material of the
vessel, the real expansivity of a liquid (𝜸𝒓 ) is always more than its apparent expansivity (𝜸𝒂 ). It
can be shown that the difference between the real and the apparent expansivity of a liquid is the
cubic expansivity of the vessel.
Hence,
𝜸𝒓 = 𝜸𝒂 + 𝜸 (𝟏. 𝟏𝟏)
The apparent cubic expansivity (𝜸𝒂 ) of the liquid is calculated as follows:
Let mass of empty relative density bottle = 𝑀1
Let mass of bottle + liquid = 𝑀2
Let final mass of liquid and bottle = 𝑀3
Let initial temperature = 𝜃3
Let final temperature = 𝜃3
Mass of expelled liquid = 𝑀2 − 𝑀3
Mass of remaining liquid = 𝑀3 − 𝑀1
Temperature rise = 𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏
Apparent cubic expansivity (𝜸𝒂 ) is given by
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝜸𝒂 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
6
Since the masses are proportional to the volumes of the liquid we have:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝜸𝒂 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑴𝟐 − 𝑴𝟑
𝜸𝒂 =
(𝑴𝟑 − 𝑴𝟏 ) × (𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )
Anomalous Expansion of Water
The most common liquid, water, does not behave like other liquids. Above about 4℃, water
expands as the temperature rises, as we would expect. However, between 0℃ and about 4℃,
water contracts with increasing temperature. Thus, at about 4℃, the density of water passes
through a maximum and the volume through a minimum. At all other temperatures, the density
of water is less than this maximum value. This behaviour of water between 0℃ and 4℃ is called
anomalous expansion of water. This is the reason the surface of a pond freezes while the lower
water is still liquid.
Figure 1.1a shows the plot of volume of 1 kg of water against temperature. The volume of water
decreases as its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃, and then its volume starts increasing after
4℃. At 4℃, the volume of water is minimum, and, therefore, its density is maximum. The plot of
density against temperature is shown in
Figure 1.1b. The density of water increases as its temperature rises from 0℃ to 4℃, and then its
density starts decreasing after 4℃.
Figure 1.1: Anomalous Expansion of Water
Thermal Stress
When a metal rod of length 𝐿0 is heated and clamped rigidly to prevent expansion or contraction,
tensile or compressive stresses called thermal stresses develop in the metal. The thermal stress is
given as:
7
𝐹 ∆𝐿 𝛼𝐿0 ∆𝜃
=𝑌 =𝑌× = 𝑌𝛼∆𝜃
𝐴 𝐿0 𝐿0
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑌𝐴𝛼∆𝜃 (1.12)
Where 𝐹 is the force; 𝐴 the surface area; 𝑌 the Young's modulus; ∆𝜃 the change in temperature
and 𝛼 the coefficient of linear expansion.