Dopant Atoms
Donor (P, As, other group V or pentavalent elements that donate electron) and Acceptor atoms
(B, Al, other group III or trivalent elements that accept electron) are commonly known as
Dopant atoms.
Doping Concentration
Nd = Doping concentration of donor atoms
Na = Doping concentration of acceptor atoms
Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor based on Doping Level
1. Nondegenerate
2. Degenerate
Nondegenerate and Degenerate Semiconductor
Context Nondegenerate Degenerate
Doping concentration (Nd, Na) compared to small high
the density of host semiconductor (Si, Ge,
GaAs etc.) atoms.
distance between dopant atoms high small
interaction between dopant atoms No Yes
Dopant energy states Discrete non- band
interacting
Doping concentration (Nd, Na) compared to very small comparable
Effective Density of States (NC, NV) n-type p-type n-type p-type
Nd << NC Na << NV Nd ≈ NC Na ≈ NV
Fermi-level (EF) between EC and EV n-type p-type
EV < EF < EC above EC below EV
EF > EC EF < EV
Boltzmann Approximation Valid Invalid
Degenerate Doping
Nondegenerate Doping and Dopant States
Ed = Donor Energy Level, Ea = Acceptor Energy Level
Complete Ionization and Freeze out
Nd = Doping concentration of donor atoms
Nd+ = density of ionized donor atoms
nd = density of unionized donor atoms = Nd - Nd+
Na = Doping concentration of acceptor atoms
Na- = density of ionized acceptor atoms
pa = density of unionized acceptor atoms = Na – Na-
Complete Ionization
At room temperature (T = 300K), the donor states are essentially completely ionized and, for a
typical doping of 1016 cm-3, almost all donor impurity atoms have donated an electron to the
conduction band. So that means Nd+ = Nd and nd = Nd - Nd+ = 0
At room temperature, there is also essentially complete ionization of the acceptor atoms. This
means that each acceptor atom has accepted an electron from the valence band so that Na- = Na
and pa = Na – Na- = 0. At typical acceptor doping concentrations, a hole is created in the valence
band for each acceptor atom.
So, at room temperature almost all dopant (donor or acceptor) atoms are ionized. This
phenomena is called complete ionization
This ionization effect and the creation of electrons and holes in the conduction band and valence
band, respectively, are shown in Figure 4.12.
Freeze-out
The opposite of complete ionization occurs at T = 0 K. At absolute zero degrees, all electrons are
in their lowest possible energy state; that is, for an n-type semiconductor, no donor atom donates
an electron, therefore no donor atom is ionized which means Nd+ = 0, so, nd = Nd - Nd+ = Nd.
Also in Freeze-out, EC > EF > Ed for n-type
In the case of a p-type semiconductor at absolute zero temperature, the impurity (acceptor) atoms
will not accept any electrons, i.e. all acceptor atoms are unionized which means Na- = 0, so, pa =
Na – Na- = Na.
Also in Freeze-out, EV < EF < Ea for p-type
No electrons from the donor state are thermally elevated into the conduction band; this effect
is called freeze-out. Similarly, when no electrons from the valance band are elevated into the
acceptor states, the effect is also called freeze-out.
Figure 4.13 shows these effects
Partial Ionization
Between T = 0 K, freeze-out, and T = 300 K, complete ionization, we have partial ionization of
donor or acceptor atoms.
Compensated Semiconductor
A compensated semiconductor is that contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in the
same region. A compensated semiconductor can be formed, for example, by diffusing acceptor
impurities into an n-type material or by diffusing donor impurities into a p-type material. An n-
type compensated semiconductor occurs when Nd > Na, and a p-type compensated
semiconductor occurs when Na > Nd. If Na = Nd, we have a completely compensated
semiconductor that has the characteristics of an intrinsic material. See figure 4.14
nd
pa
Charge Neutrality
n0 = thermal equilibrium electron concentration
p0 = thermal equilibrium hole concentration
The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the density of negative charges to the
density of positive charges.
……….(1)
Assuming complete ionization
n0 + Na = p0 + Nd…………………(2)***** Charge Neutrality Equation
Now substituting p0 = ni2 / n0
For Nd > Na , that is n-type
……………….(3)
Solving for n0
………………(4)*****
Similarly for Na > Nd , that is p-type
…………(5)
Solving for p0
………….(6)*****
*** Equation – 4 and 6 are used for finding majority carrier concentration
Condition type majority carrier find equation
Nd > Na n-type electron n0 4
Na > Nd p-type hole p0 6
*** Once majority carrier concentration is found find minority carrier concentration using
n0 × p0 = ni2
*** You must find ni for values of T other than 300K
Nd =
Example 4.10
Procedure Same as Exercise Problem 4.9
For Ge,
Eg = 0.66
NC(300) = 1.04×1019
NV(300) = 6×1018
Example :
Si is doped with As at T = 400K so that n0 = 8 ×1012cm-3. Determine doping concentration.
Solution :
Given,
T = 400K
n0 = 8 ×1012cm-3
Now, p0 = ni2/n0 = (5.67×1024)/ (8×1012) = 7.0875×1011cm-3
Since its doped with As (donor) we find Nd. Also Na = 0 because its not doped with acceptor.
putting values of n0, p0 and Na in equation-2 (Charge Neutrality Equation)
n0 + Na = p0 + Nd
or, 8 ×1012 = 7.0875×1011 + Nd
or, Nd = 7.29 ×1012 cm-3
*** Similarly we can find Na using equation-2 when n0, p0 and Nd are available.
Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic Carrier Concentration
We know that intrinsic carrier concentration, ni is a very strong function of Temperature (T).
At low T, ni is small compared to typical doping concentrations (Na, Nd). So, for a n-type
material, ni << Nd – Na , hence, n0 ≈ Nd – Na , doping concentration dominates.
ni increases very rapidly with T. At very high T, ni is large compared to typical doping
concentrations. So, for a n-type material, ni >> Nd – Na , hence, n0 ≈ ni , intrinsic concentration
dominates.
So, at very high temperatures, extrinsic carrier concentration doesn’t follow doping
concentration, rather follows intrinsic carrier concentration. So extrinsic material loses its
extrinsic property and behaves like intrinsic material at very high temperatures.
We can easily control doping concentration. So at low T we can control extrinsic carrier
concentration. But at high T, extrinsic carrier concentration only depends on T and we cannot
control it by doping.
We can see from the graph that extrinsic behavior (n0 ≈ Nd – Na) is limited in a particular
temperature range. Below (partial ionization) and above (intrinsic) that its not extrinsic.
Effect of Doping on Carrier Concentration
We discuss effect of adding donor atoms
Before doping, the semiconductor is intrinsic. So, concentration of electrons in the conduction
band (n0) and concentration of holes in valence band (p0) are equal and equal to the intrinsic
carrier concentration (ni), meaning n0 = ni = p0. As we add donor impurity atoms n0 increases
above ni, since most of the donor atoms donate their electron to conduction band. This means n0
> ni. Thus electrons become the majority carrier and the semiconductor material becomes n – type
extrinsic. At the same time, a few of the donor electrons will fall into the empty states in the valence
band and, in doing so, will annihilate some of the intrinsic holes. So, p0 decreases below ni as we
add donor atoms, meaning p0 < ni. Thus holes become the minority carrier in n-type material.
So, for n0 = ni = p0, the semiconductor is intrinsic
So, for n0 > ni or p0 < ni or n0 > p0, the semiconductor is n – type and electron is majority carrier
Similarly, for p0 > ni or n0 < ni or p0 > n0, the semiconductor is p – type, hole is majority carrier
*** the formula n0p0 = ni2 remains valid for all cases
Say, for example, at some temperature T, n0 = 2×1016cm-3 and ni is found to be 1015cm-3.
So, n0 > ni, hence its n – type. So, majority carrier is electron and minority carrier is hole. The
minority carrier concentration i.e. hole concentration (p0) then can be found from n0p0 = ni2