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Using the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process to observe, understand, and
explain the world we live in. There are six steps to the scientific method.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

You decide which question or problem you want to study.

Step 2: Collect data

After you identify your question, you need to gather data and
organize information. A sample is a portion of the entire thing or
population that is being studied. A major concern is that the sample taken
may be representative of the entire population. An unrepresentative
sample introduces bias into the results of the study. One way to prevent
bias is to select a large enough sample size to reduce the probability that,
by random chance, the sample differs significantly from the population.

Step 3: Form a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a guess or possible explanation based on the
available facts. In other words, a hypothesis is a predictive answer to a
question.

Step 4: Test the Hypothesis

Once a hypothesis is formed, you will test it to see if your guess is
correct. You conduct experiments, which are processes used to test a
hypothesis. You needs to make many decisions in designing an
experiment. These decisions include: what things to test, what steps to
follow, and how to collect information or data from the experiment.

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Parts of an Experiment
For your experiment, your subjects will be separated into two
groups: the control group and the experimental group. The
experimental group is the group that is being exposed to one factor or
variable being tested. Variables are factors in an experiment that can be
changed, measured, or controlled. The control group is treated exactly the
same way as the experimental group except it is not exposed to the
variable.
Well-Designed Experiments
Results of a poorly designed experiment are not valid or reliable.
Valid means that the results are true. Reliable means that each time the
experiment is repeated or reproduced, the same results occur.

Step 5: Collect the Data

For any experiment, you will collect data. Data may be qualitative
(observational) or quantitative (measureable).

Step 6: Draw Conclusions

The final step is to form a conclusion about the data. In other words,
based on the results of your experiment, you accept or reject your
hypothesis. If you reject your hypothesis, then you create a different
hypothesis based on your data and retest.

To evaluate these scientific investigations, ask these questions:

 What was the hypothesis?
 What was the independent variable?
 What was/were the dependent variable(s)?
 What were the other variables, and were they controlled?
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 Were the measurement methods appropriate to what was being

measured?
 Was the number of samples adequate?
 Overall, was the experimental design appropriate to test the
hypothesis?

Sleepiness Experiment
Ruby and Mary are identical twins. They are often sleepy at
noontime while attending their science class. They want to know why they
frequently fall asleep at this time of day.
Possible explanations might include: Eating a big lunch right before
science class every day makes the twins sleepy. The classroom is too
warm. The twins are less engaged in this class because they sit at the back
of the room, instead of at the front as in the rest of their classes. The
science teacher has a monotonous voice that Mary and Ruby find boring.
Ruby and Mary become tired at noontime every day.
Question 1: Does eating a big lunch before science class make them
sleepy?
Hypothesis 1: If the twins become sleepy because they eat a big lunch
before the noon class, then postponing lunch should make them less
sleepy.
Suggested Experiment: Ruby postpones lunch until science is over at 1
P.M., whereas Mary still eats lunch at 11 A.M.
Predicted Result: Ruby should be less tired and Mary should still be
sleepy in science class.

Question 2: Are Mary and Ruby less engaged in this class because they
sit at the back of the room, instead of at the front as in the rest of their
classes?

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Hypothesis 2: If the twins become sleepy in the noon class because they
sit in the back of the room, then moving to the front of the room should
make them less sleepy.
Suggested Experiment: Ruby moves to the front of the room, while
Mary remains in the back.
Predicted Result: Ruby should be less tired and more alert than Mary,
and Mary should be sleepy during the science class.

Practice : Try this example.

Dog Food Experiment
Jim has two overweight dachshunds. He sees an advertisement for a new
reduced calorie dog food that claims to allow the dogs to eat normally but
still lose weight.
Propose a hypothesis to test the claim in the advertisement. What is the
hypothesis, suggested experiment, and predicted result?

Weed Killer Experiment

James wants to know how effective a weed killer is in preventing the
growth of dandelions. James sets up an experiment with the following
procedures to test the effectiveness of the weed killer.
 Take two identical areas of grass and label them 1 and 2.
 Apply the weed killer to area 2.
 Seed both areas with the same number of dandelion seeds.
 Water the areas daily with the same amount of water.
 Expose the areas to the same amount of sunlight and temperature.
 Once they bloom, count the number of dandelions in each area once
a day for one week.
 Record the results.

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In this experiment:
The independent variable is the weed killer that James wants to find
out what effect it has on something else.
The dependent variable is the number of dandelions growing in the
areas of grass. It is affected by the changes made by the presence or
absence of the weed killer.
There are six controlled variables—the identical areas of grass,
amounts of dandelions seeded, amounts of water used daily, lighting
and temperature, and time of investigation.

Vitamins and Growth Experiment

Andrew is studying the effect of vitamins on the growth of mice. His
hypothesis is that mice receiving a daily vitamin will grow faster than
those not receiving the vitamin. To test his hypothesis, he follows these
procedures. He obtains two identical mice and places them in the same
cage. He feeds them the same food and the same amount of water. One
mouse gets 5 milligrams of vitamin powder sprinkled on its food every
day, while the other does not. He weighs the mice daily, giving them an
edible treat if they cooperate during the handling and weighing.
In this experiment:
The independent variable is the vitamin.
The dependent variable is the growth of the mice as measured by
changes in weight.
Controlled variables ???

Now, some of the weaknesses/ bias:

 Are only two mice (one control, one experimental) sufficient to
represent a larger population?

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 The mice are placed in the same cage and they are identical, but
there is no mention of a way to identify which mouse gets the
vitamin and which does not.

Brand X and Y Fertilizers Experiment

A company claims that its new fertilizer, Brand X, will make plants,
such as tomato plants, grow faster and produce more fruit than a leading
brand by another company, Brand Y. The directions for each fertilizer
indicate that they are used at the same concentration (50 g/kg soil). A
scientist uses 150 tomato plant seedlings. He divides the seedlings into
three groups of 50 plants. Each seedling is 10 to 12 cm high at the start of
the study and is planted in a pot containing 1 kg of potting soil; the soil is
identical for all groups. To one group (control), nothing is added to the
soil. To a second group, 50 g of Brand Y is added to the soil of each plant.
To a third group, 50 g of Brand X is added to the soil. All of the plants are
grouped together in the same greenhouse at a constant temperature of
25°C. The light in the greenhouse is uniformly illuminated and all plants
are exposed to a 12-hour on/off cycle. The plants are carefully watered
each day with 200 mL of water each. The height of each plant is measured
and recorded weekly for 20 weeks. In addition, the number of tomatoes
produced by each plant is noted at the end of the experiment (week 20).

 What was the hypothesis?

If tomato plants are treated with Brand X, then they should grow faster
and produce more tomatoes than those treated with Brand Y or untreated.
 What was the independent variable?
The amount of time that growth was measured (weeks).
 What was/were the dependent variable(s)?
The average height of the tomato plants and the number of tomatoes
produced per plant.

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 Was the number of samples adequate?

Yes, 50 samples in each group were adequate.
 What were the other variables, and were they controlled?
Other variables were the temperature of the greenhouse as well as the
amounts of soil, water, and sunlight. All of these variables were
controlled.
 Overall, was the experimental design appropriate to test the
hypothesis?
Yes, the experimental design was adequate and appropriate.

Look at the data obtained from the experiment. The average height of the
plants in each group is shown in the graph.

Here are some questions to consider when looking at the graph:

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 What was the maximum height of tomato plants in each group?

The maximum height was 90 cm in each group.
 How long did it take each group to reach the maximum height?
The control plants took 15 weeks to reach the maximum height,
while plants treated with Brand Y and Brand X took 10 weeks and 6
weeks, respectively.
 Which plants grew the fastest?
Brand X grew fastest (about 13.3 cm/week). Brand Y grew the next
fastest (about 8 cm/ week). The control plants grew the slowest (about
5.3 cm/week).
 Consider the hypothesis. Did the growth results support the
prediction made in the hypothesis?
Yes, as predicted, the plants treated with Brand X fertilizer grew
faster than the control plants and the Brand Y–treated plants.

Now, look at the number of tomatoes produced by the plants, as shown in

the table.

 Did treating the plants with fertilizers increase the fruit

production?
a. Yes
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b. No
 Consider the hypothesis. Did the plants treated with Brand X
produce more tomatoes than those treated with Brand Y?
a. Yes
b. No
 Now that you have all this data, what would you conclude about
the company’s claims regarding Brand X?

Practice
Are preservative effective? Experiment
Katy always buys bread with preservatives so that it will last longer.
She wants to know if the preservatives really do make a difference in
slowing the growth of mold on bread. She conducts the following
experiment:
1. Obtains one slice of bread containing preservatives and one slice of
bread without any preservatives.
2. Dampens two paper towels.
3. Places each paper towel inside a separate zip-top plastic bag.
4. Places one slice of bread in each bag, seals the bags, and labels the
bags.
5. Puts the bags in a dark, temperaturecontrolled environment for one
week. 6. Records the mold growth once a day for one week.

1. What is the most likely hypothesis for Katy’s experiment?

a. If bread is damp, then it will grow mold faster than dry bread.
b. If bread is placed in a cool, dark environment, then it will stay
preserved longer.
c. If bread with preservatives is placed in plastic, then it will resist mold
for more than one week
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d. If bread has preservatives, it will grow mold more slowly than bread
without preservatives.

2. Which is the dependent variable in Katy’s experiment?

a. time
b. moisture
c. mold growth
d. bread with preservatives

3. Which is the independent variable in Katy’s experiment?

a. time
b. moisture
c. mold growth
d. bread with preservatives

4. Which is a controlled variable in Katy’s experiment?

a. bread without preservatives
b. moisture
c. mold growth
d. bread with preservatives

5. Which is a weakness in Katy’s experiment?

a. the use of damp paper towels
b. the use of plastic bags
c. not specifying how mold growth is measured
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d. placing one slice of bread in each bag

2. Questions 1 through 3 are based on the passage below.

Despite the prevalence of type 2 diabetes, the causes of the disease
remain somewhat uncertain. It is likely that some combination of
genetics and lifestyle contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes.
However, scientists have not fully determined the roles played by
various lifestyle factors (such as diet and exercise).
For Americans, one contributing factor may be high sugar
consumption. Sugar from food is broken down and absorbed into the
bloodstream, and insulin is required for the body to be able to use that
sugar. In a study of individuals 18–25 years old who consumed more
than the recommended amount of sugar daily, it was shown that the
majority had significantly elevated levels of glucose (that is, sugar) in
their blood but normal levels of insulin. In other words, these subjects
could not produce enough insulin to allow their bodies to use the
amount of sugar they were consuming. Elevated blood glucose levels
may put individuals consuming high amounts of sugar at higher risk of
developing type 2 diabetes.
1. Which one of the following is the topic of the entire passage?
A. sources of sugar in Americans’ diet
B. the role of insulin in metabolizing sugar from food
C. the causes of type 2 diabetes
D. how to prevent type 2 diabetes

2. Which of the following is the main idea of the first paragraph?

A. It is likely that sugar consumption contributes to the development
of type 2 diabetes.

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B. It is likely that genetics plays a role in the development of type 2

diabetes.
C. Researchers have discovered the causes of type 2 diabetes.
D. The causes of type 2 diabetes are not fully understood.

3. The main idea of the second paragraph is that high sugar

consumption may put individuals at greater risk of developing type
2 diabetes. Which of the following details supports that main idea?
A. Sugar from food is absorbed into the bloodstream.
B. A study of 18–25 year olds showed that a majority did not
produce enough insulin to offset the high amounts of sugar they were
consuming.
C. A study of 18–25 year olds showed that high sugar consumption
interacted with genetic factors in a majority of those individuals in
order to suppress insulin production.
D. It has not been proven that sugar is a contributing factor to the
development of type 2 diabetes.

3. Read about scientific observation and answer the question below.

Scientists observed unusual plant and algae growth in a pond. They
sampled the water and also discovered very high concentrations of
bacteria. Significant increases in the growth of plants, algae, and
bacteria in ponds are often caused by an excess of phosphates and
nitrates in the water. The pond was fairly close to neighboring
farmland, and two streams carried water from the farm to the pond. ▶
What could be a sound hypothesis about the growth in the pond?
(1) Runoff from the neighboring farm may be carrying excessive
phosphates and nitrates from fertilizers into the pond.

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(2) Proximity to farmland is the cause of plant and algae growth in

ponds and other bodies of water.

4. Questions 1 through 3 are based on this passage.

A majority of teenagers develop acne, but scientists still struggle to
explain its cause. It has long been thought that bacteria play a role,
although until recently it was assumed that role was purely detrimental—
contributing to acne. However, a team of researchers began to wonder
whether different strains of bacteria might impact acne in different ways.
The research team studied 49 individuals with acne and 52
individuals without acne, and the researchers collected samples of
bacteria from the nasal pores of all those individuals. The researchers
found that some combinations of bacterial strains were highly likely to be
found in clearskinned individuals, while other combinations were highly
likely to be found in individuals with acne.
After carefully analyzing their data, the scientists concluded that,
while some bacterial combinations likely contribute to acne, other
bacterial combinations may actually help to ward it off. The researchers
suggested that, if further studies confirm these findings, we may want to
treat acne by encouraging the growth of helpful bacteria.
1. Use the boxes below to identify the researchers’ independent and
dependent variables.
Independent variables Dependent variables

Acne symptoms Combination of bacteria

teenagers Treatment for acne

2. What was the researchers’ hypothesis?

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A. Combinations of bacteria are a major cause of acne.

B. Different kinds of bacteria may impact acne differently.
C. We may want to change the way we treat acne, treating it by
encouraging the growth of beneficial bacteria.
D. Some combinations of bacteria may actually help ward off acne.

3. What conclusion did the researchers reach based on their data?

A. Combinations of bacteria are a major cause of acne.
B. Acne sufferers have more types of bacterial strains in their facial pores
than do non-sufferers.
C. The way we currently treat acne is misguided.
D. Some combinations of bacteria may actually help ward off acne.

5. Luke is conducting a survey to determine how effective his high

school’s ban on vending machines has been in reducing the amount of
junk food students eat. The survey asks students how much junk food they
used to eat and how much they eat now. Luke sends the survey to the
members of his soccer team, many of whom used to get a snack from the
vending machines after practice. If half of the team members respond
to the survey, will Luke have reliable data? Why or why not?
A. no, because Luke did not survey the team members before the vending
machines were removed
B. no, because the survey is not a random sample of the relevant
population
C. yes, because at least some of the survey respondents used the vending
machines
D. yes, because the soccer team members likely come from a variety of
backgrounds

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6. Researchers for a healthcare network want to determine whether

complications are more likely when women give birth in a hospital or at
home. They identify records of 200 women who have given birth in the
last year, half in the hospital and half at home, and compare the number
of complications in each group. Which of the following correctly
explains a potential source of bias in this study?
A. The researchers did not take into account the number of women in each
group.
B. Some women do not give birth in either a hospital or at home, and those
women are not included in the study.
C. Some complications are more serious than others, and this study does
not weight the severity of complications.
D. The women were not randomly assigned to groups, so another factor
besides where they give birth could affect complications.

7. Use the graph below to practice scientific reasoning.

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▶ Which conclusion is supported by the data on the graph?

(1) The rate of infant deaths in the United States experienced its sharpest
decline between roughly 1940 and the late 1950s.
(2) In each year between 1940 and 2009, there were fewer infant deaths
than in the year before.

8. In the last several decades, the spider population has exploded on the
island of Guam: parts of the island have as many as 40 times more spiders
than nearby islands do. One scientist has concluded that the explosion in
the Guam spider population is due to an increase in the population of an
invasive species of brown tree snake. The snake was introduced into
Guam in the 1940s but was not introduced into the neighboring islands.
The brown tree snake preys on birds. Which one of the following, if true,
makes the scientist’s conclusion more likely?
A. The birds that the brown tree snake eats are the primary predators of
spiders on Guam.
B. The brown tree snake is typically introduced into islands via ships
carrying tourists. Guam and the islands nearby have long been popular
tourist spots.
C. Brown tree snakes eat spiders as well as birds.
D. In the rainy season, the island of Guam can have more than 40 times
as many spiders as it did ten years ago.

9. Osmosis is the reason why it is unhealthy and potentially dangerous to

drink seawater. If you drink seawater, which contains a high concentration
of salts and other dissolved material, some of the dissolved material will
be absorbed into your bloodstream, causing your blood to have a higher-
than-normal concentration of dissolved material. As that blood circulates
through your body, water will move from your body’s tissues into your
blood vessels, causing your tissues to lose water and dry out. Fill in the

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blank with one of the choices: Based on the information above, your
tissues would begin to lose water and dry out when your blood has a level
of dissolved material ______________ that of your body’s tissues.
 greater than
 less than
 equivalent to

10. Growing the same crop on a field year after year can cause crop yields
to decline as the soil becomes depleted and insect populations become
firmly established. Crop rotation, or growing different crops in different
years, is one way to avoid these problems. However, discovering the most
effective rotation of a number of different crops is difficult, because there
are so many possible orders in which to grow them and testing any given
crop rotation takes several years. For example, imagine a proposed
rotation of corn, peanuts, onions, beets, and carrots, with a different crop
grown each year for five years. How many different orderings of these
five crops are possible?
A. 15
B. 25
C. 120
D. 125

11. Common garden snails are hermaphroditic. That is, each individual
snail produces both sperm and eggs. Mating between two garden snails
involves the transfer of sperm from each partner to the other. A high
school science teacher has created a large terrarium for his classroom that
contains 6 adult garden snails. Assuming that all 6 snails are healthy, how
many different mating pairs are possible?
A. 2
B. 12
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C. 15
D. 36

12. A breeder of dachshunds knows that the dog comes in three coats
(long-haired, short-haired, wire-haired), three possible colors (red, brown,
black), and two patterns (solid, dappled). How many kinds of
dachshunds could there be?
A. 18
B. 36
C. 22
D. 8

13. Inside each cell of your body, ribonucleic acid (RNA) contains
information to build proteins. A molecule of ribonucleic acid has four
nitrogen bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U). A
sequence of three nitrogen bases makes up a codon, which is a unit that
codes for one amino acid. How many distinct codons can be made from
the nitrogen bases of RNA?
A. 27
B. 64
C. 8
D. 32

14. A forecast shows the chance of rain on Friday is 10%, 30%, 70%, and
50% for Miami, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Chicago, respectively. What is
the probability that it will rain in all four cities on Friday? ____________

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15. The probability of having a male offspring is 50%, while the

probability of having type O+ blood is 37.4%. The two outcomes are
independent of each other. What is the probability of having a baby
boy with type O+ blood?
a. 18.7%
b. 12.6%
c. 87.4%
d. 50%

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