FACTORIZABLE POLYNOMIALS

Definition: A polynomial in x and with real coefficients is a mathematical expression of the

n
form an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = ai xi where ai ∈ R. The ai are
P
i=0
called the coefficients of the polynomial, and x is called an indeterminate. Polynomials with
integer or rational or complex coefficients are similarly defined. If an 6= 0, the polynomial
is said to have degree n and the term an xn is called the leading term with an the leading
coefficient, while a0 is called the constant term. If the leading coefficient of the polynomial
is 1, then the polynomial is said to be monic. Polynomials in x are denoted by symbols such
as a(x), b(x), f (x), g(x), and so on.
Real numbers are considered as polynomials, called constant polynomials. The nonzero con-
stant polynomials have degree 0. However, the costant polynomial 0 does not have a degree
since no power of x appears with nonzero coefficient.
Long Division of Polynomials
When a polynomial f (x) is divided by a polynomial g(x), we obtain a quotient q(x) and a
remainder R. This is analogous to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.

q(x)←−quotient
divisor −→g(x) f (x)←−dividend
························
··················
············
R ←−remainder

The degree of the remainder R is less than that of the divisor g(x). When dividing poly-
nomials, it is necessary that the divisor and dividend be ordered by descending powers of
x. Additionally, any missing powers of x between the the leading term (the term in highest
power of x) and the constant term should be filled in with a 0 (provide zero placeholders for
the missing powers of x). For example, a polynomial such as 7x + 5x3 + 8 should be rewritten
as 5x3 + 0x2 + 7x + 8.
Example
Divide
(a) f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by
(i ) g(x) = x − 1
(ii ) g(x) = x2 − 2
(b) f (x) = 4x3 − x + 2 by g(x) = 3x + 2

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Solution:
(a) (i )

3x2 + 5x + 6
x−1 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 3x2
5x2 + x
5x2 − 5x
6x − 1
6x − 6
5

Thus, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5. In this case, we can write
f (x) as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x − 1)(3x2 + 5x + 6) + 5.
Note: In the example above, deg(remainder)< deg(divisor).

(ii )

3x + 2
x2 − 2 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 6x
2x2 + 7x
2x2 − 4
7x + 3

So, the quotient is 3x + 2 and the remainder is 7x + 3. In this case, we can write f (x)
as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x2 − 2)(3x + 2) + (7x + 3).
(b)
4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27

3x + 2 4x3 − x + 2
4x3 + 8/3x2

−8/3x2 − x
2
−8/3x − 16/9x

7/9x + 2
7/9x + 14/27

40/27

Hence, the quotient is 4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27 and the remainder is 40/27. Therefore, we have
4x3 − x + 2 = (3x + 2)(4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27) + 40/27.

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Synthetic Division of Polynomials
Long division of polynomials may sometimes involve many steps and this can be quite cum-
bersome. Synthetic division is a shorthand method of dividing polynomials for the special
case where the divisor is a linear polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1 (a first degree
monic polynomial), i.e. the divisor is a polynomial of the form x–k for a constant k. In
synthetic division, only the coefficients are used in the division process.

Steps Involved in Synthetic Division of Polynomials

Step 1 : Write the divisor in x − k form, and the dividend in descending degrees of x.
Step 2 : Write the problem in synthetic division form: write k for the divisor and the
coefficients of the dividend for the dividend.
Step 3 : Bring the leading coefficient down to the solution row.
Step 4 : Multiply the leading coefficient by k and write the product in the next column.
Step 5 : Write the sum of the terms of the second column in the solution row.
Step 6 : Multiply the result by k and write the product in the next column.
Step 7 : Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the remaining columns.
Step 8 : Use the numbers in the solution row to write the quotient. The number in the
last column is the remainder and has degree 0, the next number from the right
has degree 1, the next number from the right has degree 2, and so on.
Example
Use synthetic division to divide:
(a) 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by x − 1.
(b) −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 by x + 2.
Solution:
Set up the synthetic division by writing k = 1 for the divisor, and the coefficients of the
dividend for the dividend
1 3 2 1 −1

← Solution row

Bring down the leading coeficient 3 to the solution row and multiply the leading coefficient
by k. Write the result in the second row second column

1 3 2 1 −1
⇓ 3
3

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 Add the numbers in the second column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write
the result in the second row third column
1 3 2 1 −1
3 5
3 5
Add the numbers in the third column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write the
result in the second row fourth column and add the numbers in the fourth column.
1 3 2 1 −1
3 5 6
3 5 6 5
Therefore, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5.
(b) Rewrite −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 as −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 + 0x − 6. Write the divisor in
the form x − k, i.e. x + 2 = x − (−2) so that k = −2. Now, perform synthetic division

−2 −9 10 7 0 −6
18 −56 98 −196
−9 28 −49 98 −202
Therefore, the quotient is −9x3 + 28x2 − 49x + 98 and the remainder is −202.

Note: The synthetic division algorithm can be extended to division by polynomials of any
degree.

Exercise
1. Divide:
(a) x3 − 2x + 4 by x − 1
(b) 2x3 − x2 + 2 by x − 3
(c) x4 − 3x3 + 5x by 2x + 1
(d ) 9x5 − 5x2 + 2 by 3x2 + 2
2. The area of a rectangle is given by 3x3 + 14x2 − 23x + 6. The width of the rectangle is
given by x + 6. Find an expression for the length of the rectangle. [Ans: 3x2 −4x + 1]
3. The volume of a rectangular solid is given by the polynomial 3x4 − 3x3 − 33x2 + 54x.
The length of the solid is given by 3x and the width is given by x–2. Find the height
of the solid.

Theorem (Remainder Theorem): If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, the

remainder is f (a) [f (a) is free of x, i.e. f (a) is a constant].

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Proof : Let R be the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − a for a constant a. Then
f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + R. Putting x = a, we get f (a) = 0q(a) + R so that R = f (a).

Corollary: If a polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q where p 6= 0, the remainder is f (−q/p).

Proof : Suppose R is the remainder when the polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q. Then
f (x) = (px + q)h(x) + R. Putting x = −q/p, we get f (−q/p) = [p(−q/p) + q]h(−q/p) + R = 0 + R
so that R = f (−q/p).

Example
Find the remainder when x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3 is divided by
(a) x − 1
(b) x + 2
(c) 2x − 1
Solution: Let f (x) = x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3. Then,
(a) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − 1 is f (1) = (1)5 − 4(1)3 + 2(1) + 3 = 2.
(b) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 2 is

f (−2) = (−2)5 − 4(−2)3 + 2(−2) + 3 = −1.

(c) the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2x − 1 is

f [− (−1/2)] = f (1/2) = (1/2)5 − 4(1/2)3 + 2(1/2) + 3 = 113/32.

Exercise
Find the remainder when
(a) x3 − 2x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by x − 2
(b) x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2
(c) 4x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 2 is divided by
(i ) 2x + 3
(ii ) −2x + 3
(iii ) −2x − 3
(iv ) x

Theorem (Factor Theorem): Let f (x) be a polynomial. Then x − a is a factor of

f (x) if and only if there is no remainder on division, i.e. if and only if f (a) = 0.

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Example
1. Factorize x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 completely.
Solution: We use trial and error method together with the factor theorem.
Let f (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8. The factors of 8 are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8. Now,
f (1) = 1 − 3 + 4 − 8 = −6 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);
f (2) = 16 − 24 + 16 − 8 = 0 ⇒ x − 2 is a factor of f (x).

2 1 −3 4 0 −8
2 −2 4 8
1 −1 2 4 0

So, f (x) = (x − 2)(x3 − x2 + 2x + 4).

Next, we factorize f1 (x) = x3 − x2 + 2x + 4. The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4.
f1 (2) = 8 − 4 + 4 + 4 6= 0 =⇒x − 2 is not a factor of f1 (x);
f1 (−1) = −1 − 1 − 2 + 4 = 0 =⇒x + 1 is a factor of f1 (x).

−1 1 −1 2 4
−1 2 −4
1 −2 4 0

So, f1 (x) = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

Now, x2 − 2x + 4 has no linear factors. Therefore,

x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 = (x − 2)(x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

2. Solve the equation x3 − 7x − 6 = 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6. The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
f (1) = 1 − 7 − 6 6= 0 =⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);
f (−1) = −1 + 7 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x + 1 is a factor of f (x);
f (−2) = −8 + 14 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x + 2 is a factor of f (x);
f (3) = 27 − 21 − 6 = 0 =⇒ x − 3 is a factor of f (x).
Therefore, x3 − 7x − 6 = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 =⇒ x = −1 or x = −2 or x = 3.
3. A polynomial f (x) has remainder 9 when divided by x − 3 and remainder −5 when
divided by 2x + 1. Find the remainder when divided by (x − 3)(2x + 1).
Solution: The divisor (x − 3)(2x + 1) is of degree 2. So, the remainder R is of
degree 1 or 0. Let R = ax + b (a = 0 if R is of degree 0 and a 6= 0 if R is of degree
1). Thus, f (x) = (x − 3)(2x + 1)q(x) + (ax + b). For x = 3, f (3) = 3a + b = 9 and for
x = −1/2, f (−1/2) = −1/2a + b = −5. Solving the two equations simultaneously we get
a = 4, b = −3. So, R = 4x − 3.

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Exercise
1. Solve the equations:
(a) 3x3 + x2 − 5x + 2 = 0
(b) x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 6 = 0
(c) 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6 = 0
2. When the expression x5 + 4x2 + ax + b is divided by x2 − 1, the remainder is 2x + 3.
Find the values of a and b.
3. A cubic polynomial ax3 + bx + 6 is divisible by x + 2. It leaves a remainder −3 when
divided by x − 1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial
completely.
4. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by x − 1, has remainder 2 when divided by
x + 1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.
5. A polynomial x3 + ax2 + bx + c has x − 1 and x + 1 as factors. It leaves a remainder
of 12 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.

Rational Root Test

Theorem: Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial with integer
coefficients. If r 6= 0 and the rational number rs (in lowest terms) is a root/zero of f (x),
i.e. f ( rs ) = 0, then r is a factor of the constant term a0 and and s is a factor of the leading
coefficient an .

Steps to Determine the Rational Roots of a Polynomial

Step 1 : Write the polynomial by descending powers of x

Step 2 : Write down all the factors of the constant term (these are all the possible values
of r).
Step 3 : Write down all the factors of the leading coefficient (these are all the possible
values of s).
Step 4 : Write down all the possible values of rs . Since factors can be negative, both rs
and − rs should be included. Simplify each value and cross out any duplicates.
Step 5 : Use the factor theorem to determine the values of rs for which f ( rs ) = 0 (these
are all the rational roots of f (x)).
Example:
1. Find all the rational zeros of f (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 19x2 − 9x + 9 and hence factorize it
completely.
Solution: The factors of the constant term 9 are ±1, ±3, ±9 while the factors of the

7
 r
leading coefficient 2 are ±1, ±2. So, the possible values of s
(possible rational roots of
f (x)) are ± 11 , ± 12 , ± 31 , ± 32 ,
± 91 , ± 92 . These can be simplified to ±1, ± 21 , ±3,± 23 , ±9, ± 92 .
Calculations show that f ( rs ) = 0 for rs = −3, −1, 12 , 3 and f ( rs ) 6= 0 otherwise, that is
f ( rs ) 6= 0 if rs = − 21 , 1, ± 32 , ±9, ± 29 . Thus, the rational roots of f (x) are x = −3, −1, 12 ,
and 3. By the factor theorem, the linear factors of f (x) are x + 1, x + 3, x − 3 and x − 12
so that f (x) = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)(2x − 1) in factor form.
2. Find all the rational roots of f (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 21x2 − 14x + 12 and hence factorize it
completely.
Solution: If f (x) has a root of the form rs in Q, then r divides 12 (i.e. r is one of
r
±1,±2,±3,±4,±6,±12) and s divides 2 (i.e. ±1, ±2). So, the possible values of s
are
1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 6, −6, 12, −12, 21 , − 12 , 32 , − 32 . Substituting each of
these in f (x) shows that −3 and 21 are the only roots of f (x) in Q. By the factor
theorem, both x − (−3) = x + 3 and x − 21 are factors of f (x). By long (or synthetic)
division we have f (x) = (x+3)(x− 1/2)(2x2 −4x−8). The roots of the factor 2x2 −4x−8
√
are 1 ± 5 ∈ / Q.
3. The only possible roots of f (x) = x3 + 4x2 + x − 1 in Q are 1 and −1. However,
f (1) = 5 6= 0 and f (−1) = 1 6= 0. So, neither 1 nor −1 is a root of f (x). So, f (x) has
no roots in Q.
Exercise
Find all the rational roots of f (x) and hence factorize it completely.
(a) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x–5 [Ans: x = 1]
3 2
(b) f (x) = 3x − 10x + x + 6 [Ans: x = − 32 , 1, 3]
(c) f (x) = x4 + 2x3 –7x2 –8x + 12 [Ans: x = –3, –2, 1, and 2]
4 3 2
(d ) f (x) = 6x –11x + 8x –33x–30 [Ans: x = –2
3
and 52 ]

Partial Fraction Decomposition

From previous experience, we have added and simplified rational expressions.
Example:
Simplify x2 + x+1
1

2(x+1) 1(x)
Solution: x2 + x+11
= x(x+1) + (x+1)(x) 2x+2
= x(x+1) x
+ (x+1)(x) = 2x+2+x
x(x+1)
= x3x+2
2 +x .

Partial fraction decomposition (also known as partial fraction expansion) is precisely the
reverse process of the preceeding example. The method is used to decompose a given rational
expression into simpler fractions. To decompose a fraction, first factor the denominator and
then write the fractions with one of the factors for each of the denominators.
Example:
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression x3x+2
2 +x .

8
 3x+2 3x+2
Solution: Factor the denominator of the expression to get x2 +x
= x(x+1)
. Write two partial
fractions with the factors of the denominator as their respective denominators, and with the
3x+2
two unknown values of the numerators represented by variables A and B, i.e. x(x+1) = Ax + x+1
B
.
hTo eliminate
i all the denominators, multiply both sides of the equation by x(x + 1), that is
3x+2
x(x+1)
[x(x + 1)] = Ax [x(x + 1)] + x+1
B
[x(x + 1)]. This gives 3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + Bx, and on
rewriting we have 3x + 2 = (A + B)x + A. Comparing the coefficients of similar terms from
A + B = 3
both sides of the latter equation we have the system which on solving
A = 2
gives A = 2, B = 1. Therefore, x3x+2 2 1
2 +x = x + x+1 .

If the denominator of a rational expression factors into unique linear factors, as in the pre-
ceeding example, then the decomposition process is quite straightforward. However, this may
not be the case if the rational expression has a repeated factor in the denominator.
Example:
x +1 2
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the expression x(x−1)3.

Solution: The factor x–1 occurs three times in the denominator of the expression. Form
four partial fractions having x, x − 1, (x − 1)2 , and (x − 1)3 as their respective denominators,
x2 +1 A B C D 3
i.e. x(x−1) 3 = x−1 + (x−1)2 + (x−1)3 + x . Now, multiply through by x(x − 1) to get the
2 2 3
equation x + 1 = Ax(x–1) + Bx(x–1) + Cx + D(x–1) . Putting x = 1 gives C = 2, and
putting x = 0 gives D = −1. Putting x = 2 gives A + B = 1, and putting x = −1 gives
2A − B = 2; solving the two equations simultaneously gives A = 1 and B = 0. Therefore,
x2 +1 1 2
x(x−1)3
= x−1
+ (x−1)3
− x1 .

If the denominator of a rational expression has an irreducible (unfactorable) quadratic factor,

the numerator might not be a constant. In this case, we write the numerator as a linear
expression Ax + B and then determine the unkowns A and B.
Example:
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression xx−3
3 +3x .

Solution: The denominator of the expression, in factor form, is x(x2 + 3). In this case, the
factor x2 +3 does not have linear factors with real coeffiients. So, we write x(xx−3 A Bx+C
2 +3) = x + x2 +3 .

We now multiply through by the common denominator x(x2 + 3) to obtain the equation
x − 3 = A(x2 + 3) + (Bx + C)x, which becomes x − 3 = (A + B)x2 + Cx + 3A on rewriting.
Comparing coefficients we get the equations 3A = −3, A + B = 0 and C = 1 so that A = −1,
B = 1 and C = 1. Therefore, xx−3 x+1
3 +3x = x + x2 +3 .
−1

If the denominator of a rational expression has a repeated unfactorable quadratic, then for

9
each possible power of the quadratic, form a partial fraction having the power of the quadratic
as the denominator and a linear expression in the numerator.
Example:
x4 +3x−2
The quadratic x2 + 1 in the denominator of the rational expression (x2 +1)3 (x−4)2
has no lin-
ear factor with real coefficients (i.e. it is irreducible). So, we write the rational express
4 +3x−2
as (x2x+1) A B Cx+D Ex+F Gx+H
3 (x−4)2 = x−4 + (x−4)2 + x2 +1 + (x2 +1)2 + (x2 +1)3 and then solve for the variables

A, B, C, · · · , H.

Note: Partial fraction decomposition only works for rational expressions where the degree
of the denominator is larger than that of the numerator. If this is not the case, first use long
division to get the mixed form of the rational expression and then decompose the remaining
fractional part.
Example:
x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5
Decompose the expression x3 −2x2 +x−2
.
Solution: The numerator is of degree 5 while the denominator is of degree 3. So, performing
long division,

x2
x3 − 2x2 + x − 2 x5 − 2x4 + x3 + 0x2 + x + 5
x5 − 2x4 + x3 − 2x2
2x2 + x + 5
x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5 2x2 +x+5
so that x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x2 + x3 −2x2 +x−2
. We now decompose the fractional part. The de-
2 2
nominator factors as (x2 + 1)(x–2). So, we have x32x +x+5
−2x2 +x−2
= x2 + (x2x +x+5 2
2 +1)(x–2) where x + 1
2
is irreducible. So, the decomposition will be of the form x32x +x+5
−2x2 +x−2
= x−2A
+ Bx+C
x2 +1
. Mul-
tiplying through by (x2 + 1)(x–2) we obtain 2x2 + x + 5 = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x–2).
When x = 2 we have A = 3; when x = 0, C = −1; when x = 1, B = −1. Therefore,
x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5 3
x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x2 + x−2 − xx+1
2 +1 .

Exercise
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression:
(a) x2x−3
2 +x [Ans: −3
x
5
+ x+1 ]
x−1 3 2
(b) x2 +8x+15 [Ans: x+5 − x+3 ]
9−9x 1 5
(c) 2x2 +7x−4
[Ans: 2x−1
− x+4 ]
5x−7 5 2
(d ) (x−1)3
[Ans: (x+1)2
− (x+1) 3]

x2 4 3 9
(e) (x−2)(x−3)2
[Ans: x−2
− x−3 + (x−3) 3]
x+4 2x+1
(f ) x3 −2x
[Ans: −2
x
+ x2 −2 ]

10
 8x2 −12 2 6x−4
(g) x(x2 +2x−6)
[Ans: x
+ x2 +2x−6
]
3x3 +7x−4 3x x−4
(h) (x2 +2)2
[Ans: x2 +2
+ (x2 +2)2 ]

11