1.

Definition of Terms and Stages of Data Collection

Definition of terms and Stages of data collection

1. a) Data

Data is defined as a collection of raw facts (figures, letters, special symbols or a

combination of both) that convey little meaning by themselves. example: in a
statement like James, John and Caro

 what about them?

 why
 how

We actually don't know anything about these three people thus it does not have much
meaning to us until its fully processed for us to understand

b) Information

Information is defined as data has undergone processing and is meaningful to the user
when he/she needs it. The statement simply indicates that information is not just a by-
product of data processing, but it must have certain qualities for it to qualify to be a
resource to the organization. Thus the qualities of timeliness, correctness and
relevancy must be observed for it to be good information. example: James, John and
Caro were awarded certificates for being the cleanest students in our school.
this statement now satisfies our curiosity because it has been attached much more
meaning useful to us but we need also to when. This statement can therefore be
regarded as information

c) Data Processing

Data processing can be regarded as the act of collecting data, manipulating it to get
information through (input, Processing and output) and finally distributing it to the
relevant organs for use.

Data Processing Platform

Data processing cycle are the stages (phases) through which data moves before it
becomes information. these stages include:

1. Data collection
2. Data input
 3. Processing
4. Output

Data Processing Cycle

Stages of data processing cycle

i) Data Collection

Data collection is the act of collecting data from its point of origin to the computer in
a form suitable for processing

Stages of Data Collection

Data collection is procedural, thus it attracts the following stages

A) Data Creation

Data creation is the process of capturing data from the source location using data
capturing methods like:(scanning, digital camera, touch screen, voice input etc).

B) Data Transmission

This is a term used to refer to the transfer of data from the point of collection (source)
to the point where processing is to be done (data processing department) this is
possible through computer-to-computer communication, physically by post office or
via courier services if the source is away from the data processing department.

C) Data Preparation

Data preparation is the term used to describe the process by which data is prepared
and made ready for entry in the computer for processing.

ii) Data input

This is the process where the collected data is converted from human readable form
into machine readable form (binary form)
To ensure quick and error free data the following features should be considered:

 Validation - this is the counter checking whether what is on the input

document is exactly what is entered into the computer
 Media Conversion - this is the act of converting data from different
storage medium e.g from a flash disk to a hard disk
 Sorting - Data should be arranged in a predefined order before being
processed

iii) Processing

This is the manipulation of input data into a more meaningful output that can be
regarded as being meaningful to the user. Processing involves arithmetic, sorting and
logical operations

iv) Output

This is the final activity in data processing cycle where the expected output
(information) is displayed. This information is then distributed to places (information
dissemination) where its needed to influence decision making process.
Information dissemination may include: electronic presentations over radio or
television, distribution of hard copies, broadcasting messages over the internet or
mobile phones.

Questions

1. Define the following terms

a) Data Processing
b) Data processing cycle.
c) Data
d) Information
2. using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the data processing cycle
3. Outline the stages of data collection
4. List the three feature involved during data input stage to minimize errors
5. What is the essence of output stage?
2. Description of errors in data processing

Description of errors in data processing

Introduction:
1.
Computers make errors because people program them to make those errors. Thus the
acronym GIGO - Garbage in Garbage out- errors can be described as:
1) Transcription errors
2) Computation errors and
3) Algorithm errors

1) Transcription errors

Transcription errors occur during data entry. These errors include:

i) Misreading errors
ii) Transposition errors

i) Misreading errors

These errors are caused by incorrect reading of the source document by the user and
hence entering wrong values e.g. a user may enter 5 instead of S or 0 instead of o
and so forth.

ii) Transposition errors

These are errors that occur due to incorrect arrangement of characters. like putting
characters in the wrong order. e.g. the user may enter 369 instead of 396.
However these errors can be avoided by using modern data capture devices like the
bar code reader, optical character reader, digital cameras, scanners, configuring the
right data-types in the database e.t.c.

2) Computation errors

These are errors that occur when an arithmetic operation does not produce the
expected results. They include:
overflow, underflow, truncation and rounding errors

a> Overflow

These are errors that occur from a calculation which appear too large to be stored in
the allocated memory space. e.g. if a byte is represented by 8 bits, an overflow will
occur if the result of a calculation gives a 9-bit number.
b> Underflow

Underflow (or "floating point underflow", or just "underflow") is a condition in a

computer program where the result of a calculation is a smaller number than the
computer can actually store in memory.

Arithmetic underflow can occur when the true result of a floating point operation is
smaller in magnitude (that is, closer to zero) than the smallest value representable as a
normal floating point number in the target datatype. Underflow can in part be
regarded as negative overflow of the exponent of the floating point value. For
example, if the exponent part can represent values from −127 to 127, then a result
with absolute value less than 2−127 may cause underflow.

c> Truncation

Truncation errors result from having real numbers that have a long fractional part
which cannot fit in the allocated memory space. The computer would truncate or cut
off the extra characters from the fractional part For example, a number like 0.784969
can be truncated to four digits to become 0.784. The resulting number is not rounded
off.

d> Rounding

Rounding errors results from raising or lowering a digit in a real number to the
required rounded number. For example, to round off 30.666 to one decimal place, we
raise the first digit after the decimal point if its successor is more than 5. In this case,
the successor is 6 therefore 30.666 rounded up to one decimal place is 30.7. If the
successor is below 5, e.g. 30.635, we round down the number to 30.6.

3) Algorithm errors

An algorithm is a set of procedural steps followed to solve a given problem.

Algorithms are used as design tools when writing programs. Wrongly designed
programs would result in a program that runs but gives erroneous output. Such
errors that result from wrong algorithm design are referred to as algorithm or
logical errors.

Data Integrity

Data integrity refers to the correctness and completeness of data entered in a

computer or received from the information system. Integrity is measured in
accuracy, timeliness and relevancy of data
A> Accuracy

This is how close an approximation is to an actual value. example: in a number like

34.247545, 34.2475 is more accurate than than 34.2 this is because the deviation on
the former is much lesser than the latter.

B> Timeliness

This is the relative accuracy of data in respect to the current state of affairs for which
it is needed. Information should be available on time for decision making. For
example: In a data base to prepare worker's salaries, information on the presence of
workers over the month should be processed on time before salary arrears are
released every month.

C> Relevancy

Data entered into the computer must be relevant in order to get the expected output. it
must meet pertinent needs at hand and must meet the requirements of the processing
cycle.

Way to minimize data integrity threats

1. Backup data on secondary storage devices or on online storage stores

like Dropbox and Google Drive
2. Control access to data by enforcing security measures
3. Design user interfaces that minimize chances of invalid data entry
4. Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data
5. Using devices that directly capture data from the source such as bar
code readers, digital cameras, optical character reader e.t.c.

Quiz

1. Define the following terms a) data processing b) data processing cycle

2. Using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the data
processing cycle
3. outline the stages of data collection
4. you may have come across the term garbage in garbage out (GIGO).
what is its relevance to errors in data processing.
5. explain the two types of transcription errors
6. state three types of computational errors
7.

a) define the term data integrity

b) give three factors that determine the integrity of data
C) state at least five ways of minimizing threats to data integrity.
3. Data Processing Methods

posted Jun 26, 2014, 7:08 AM by Maurice Nyamoti [ updated Feb 8, 2016, 4:52
PM ]

Data Processing Methods

Introduction:

There are three types of data processing methods namely:

1. Manual data processing

2. Mechanical data processing
3. Electronic Data Processing

Manual data processing

A paper and pen are used to process in manual data processing example: Most
schools in Kenya process t

heir data manually especially while admitting form 1s. As the students report, they
are given a form to fill, these forms are filed by the school secretary and stored in
the file cabinet- that is, if the school has 450 students, the school secretary will have
those 450 files to handle thus retrieve, store, manipulate and update information
which is a tedious job. therefore manual data processing can also be defined as the
physical entering and organization of data

Mechanical data processing

In mechanical data processing, data is processed with different mechanical

devices. This can include typewriters and calculators
Electronic Data Processing

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) can refer to the use of automated methods to
process commercial data. This means that, data processing, retrieval, storage,
manipulation, sorting and part of analysis is done through automated methods using
devices like computers.

Computer Files

A file can be defined as a collection of related records that give a complete set of
information about a certain item or entity.
A computer file is a resource for storing information, which is available to a
computer program and is usually based on some kind of durable storage.

Advantages of computerized/electronic filing system

1. Ease of access.
2. Speed of access.
3. Increased search facilities.
4. Capability to store huge amounts of information in a small space.
5. Portability - a pen drive or disc enables you to transport enormous amounts of
data easily and discreetly.
6. Access to data can be monitored and/or restricted. thus enhancing data
security
7. Its easier to update and modify information
8. Enhances data integrity and reduces duplication

Disadvantages of computerized/electronic filing system

1. Electrical/Electronic failure can cause temporary suspension of

business or permanent loss of data.
2. Portability - copied information can be easily hidden on a disc or pen
drive.
3. Data is not always secured by correct monitoring of access.
4. Information can be permanently deleted in error.
5. Hacking can release information that is data protected.
6. Cost of installing system.

Elements of a Computer File

A computer file is made up of three elements namely:

1. Characters
2. Fields
 3. Records

Characters

A character refers to a letter, number or symbol that can be entered, stored and
output by a computer. This is the smallest element in a computer file.

Fields

A field is a single character or a collection of characters that represent a single entity

Example:

Records

A record is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity.

Classification of Computer files

Computer files are classified as:

1. Logical files
2. Physical files

Logical Files

This is computer file viewed in terms of what data items it contains and details of
what processing operations may be performed on the data items. It does not have
implementation specific information like field and data types, size and file types.

Physical Files

This is a computer file viewed in terms of how data is stored on a storage media and
how the processing operations are made possible. They have specific details such as
characters per field and data type for each field.
Questions

1. State the three types of data processing methods

2. Define a computer file and state three advantages and three
disadvantages of computer files
3. Define: (i) Character (ii) field (iii) record
4. Explain the two classifications of computer files
5. Distinguish between a manual file and a computer file
6. List at least three equipments used during mechanical data processing
methods for processing
7. Why is a computer file described as 'durable'?

3. Types of Computer Processing Files

Types of Computer Processing Files

There are various types of files used for storing data needed for processing,
reference or backup. However the main common files include:
Master files, Transaction, Reference, Backup, Report and sort file.

Master File

A master file refers to a collection of records pertaining to one of the main subjects
of an information system, such as customers, employees, products and vendors.

Transaction (movement) file

This is a collection of transaction records. The data in transaction files is used to

update the master files, which contain the data about the subjects of the
organization (customers, employees, vendors, etc.).

Reference File

This file is normally used for reference or look-up purposes. Look up information is
that information which is stored in a separate file but is required during processing.

Backup File

A backup file is used to hold copies (backups) of data or information from the
computers fixed storage (hard disk)

Report File

A report file is used to store relatively permanent records extracted from the master
file or generated after processing.
 Sort File

A sort file stores data which is arranged in a particular order

Questions

A. State uses of the following files:

1. Sort file
2. master file
3. reference file
4. report file
5. transaction file
6. backup file

B. Of the above files, which file can be used:

i. In a supermarket to fetch the price of a commodity from the master file
ii. In a supermarket to update the master file
iii. In a bank to extract and store some important records from the master file
iv. In a bank to arrange records of customers according to their bank deposits
v. By the government to a keep copy of listed employees in the master file who
are about to retire in one year time

5. File Organization Methods

File Organization Methods

Introduction
1.
File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File organization is very
important because it determines the method of access, efficiency, flexibility and
storage devices to be used. There are four methods of organizing files on a storage
media namely: Sequential, random, serial and indexed- sequential

Sequential

 A sequentially organized file consists of records arranged in the

sequence in which they are written to the file (the first record written is
the first record in the file, the second record written is the second record
in the file, and so on). As a result, records can be added only at the end
of the file. Attempting to add records at some place other than the end
of the file will result in the file begin truncated at the end of the record
 just written.

 Sequential files are usually read sequentially, starting with the first
record in the file. Sequential files with a fixed-length record type that
are stored on disk can also be accessed by relative record number
(direct access).

 Records in sequential files can be read or written only sequentially.

 After you have placed a record into a sequential file, you cannot
shorten, lengthen, or delete the record. However, you can update
(REWRITE) a record if the length does not change. New records are
added at the end of the file.

 If the order in which you keep records in a file is not important,

sequential organization is a good choice whether there are many records
or only a few. Sequential output is also useful for printing reports.

Advantages

1. Sorting makes it easier to access records

Disadvantages

1. Sorting does not remove the need to access other records as the search
looks for a particular record
2. Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that require fast
access to stored records
3. The requirement that all records be of the same size is sometimes
difficult to enforce

Random

 In random file organisation, records are stored in random order within

the file. Though there is no sequencing to the placement of the records,
there is however, a pre-defined relationship between the key of the
record and its location within the file. In other words, the value of the
record key is mapped by an established function to the address within
the file where it resides. Therefore, any record within the file can be
directly accessed through the mapping function in roughly the same
amount of time. The location of the record within the file therefore is
not a factor in the access time of the record. As such, random files are
also known in some literature as direct access files.
  This method is normally used by optical disks like compact disks

Advantages

1. Quick retrieval of records

2. The records can be of different sizes

Serial

 Serial file organization is the simplest file organization method. In

serial files, records are entered in the order of their creation. As such,
the file is unordered, and is at best in chronological order. Serial files
are primarily used as transaction files in which the transactions are
recorded in the order that they occur.

 This type of access is normally used by magnetic tapes

Advantages

1. It is simple

Disadvantages

1. It is cumbersome to access because you have to access all preceding

records before retrieving the one being searched
2. Wastage of space on medium in form of inter- record gap
3. It cannot support modern high speed requirements for quick records
access

Indexed- Sequential

 indexed file contains records ordered by a record key. Each record

contains a field that contains the record key. The record key uniquely
identifies the record and determines the sequence in which it is accessed
with respect to other records. A record key for a record might be, for
example, an employee number or an invoice number.

 An indexed file can also use alternate indexes, that is, record keys that
let you access the file using a different logical arrangement of the
records. For example, you could access the file through employee
department rather than through employee number.

1. a) this is
ting raw data into a meaningful format called information

n6. Electronic Data Processing Modes

Electronic Data Processing Modes

Computers are programmed to process data in different ways. Just like humans they
can process shortest job first-SJF, First Come First Serve-FCFS or they can just
Round Robin giving a time span, important/emergency jobs first-real time.
Computers can also multitask or multi-programming etc. Examples of processing
modes are:

1. Online Processing

2. Real-Time processing

3. Distributed Processing

4. Time-Sharing

5. Batch Processing

6. Multitasking

7. Interactive Processing

Online Processing

 In this processing mode, data is processed immediately it is received.

 Example: When booking a seat on an airline, the seat is booked immediately.
This is to avoid problems of double-booking. other example of online
processing is when playing computer games online

Real-Time Processing

 In real time processing the computer processes the incoming data as soon as it
occurs, up-dates the transaction file and gives an immediate response that
would affect the events as they happen.
  There is no much difference with online processing however with real-time
processing, the outcome of the processing is required immediately to
influence decision making and not necessarily through online means but can
be within a machine.
 Example: in nuclear power stations, a certain level of temperature is required
to be maintained for effective disintegration of atoms. If the temperatures are
not controlled, the system may cause an emergency situation- like in increase
or decrease in slight temperature fluctuations, therefore computers are used to
control the air conditioning systems at the plant because they are programmed
to provide instant answers upon a slight change in temperature has occurred-
that is what we call real-time processing

 Another example: is the use of humidifiers and dehumidifiers in the

computer lab, when there is a lot of humidity, computers turn on the
dehumidifiers and vice versa

Distributed data processing

 These points to dividing (distributing) processing tasks to two or more

computers that are located on physically separate sites but connected by data
transmission media; there may be a central computer that receives input from
the remote computers (terminals), processes the data and updates the master
file. If required, the output can be communicated back to the remote
terminals.
 Example: When you withdraw money from a bank, your records are
transacted and updated in the main server computer which will also update
client computers across the bank branches divide.

Time-Sharing

 Just as the name suggests, time-sharing refers to many terminals connected to

a central computer and given access to the central processing unit apparently
at the same time this sounds like ‘round robin’. Each user is allocated a time
slice of the CPU in sequence.
 The amount of time allocated to each user is controlled by a multi-user
operating system. If a user’s task is not completed during the allocated time
slice, he/she is allocated another time slice later in a round robin manner.

Batch Processing

 In batch processing, data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a specified

period of time e.g. daily, weekly or monthly.
 The batch is processed at once. E.g. in a payroll processing system,
employees details concerning number of hours worked, rate of pay, and other
details are collected for a period of time, say one month. These details are
 then used to process the payment for the duration worked.

other areas where batch processing can be applied include:

 Processing bank cheques

 Printing of bank statements
 Updating of a stock database

Multiprocessing

 Multiprocessing refers to the processing of more than one task apparently at

the same time. This is possible in computers like mainframes and network
servers.
 A computer may contain more than one independent central processing unit
which works together in a coordinated way. At a given time, the processors
may execute instructions from two or more programs or from different parts
of one program simultaneously.

Multi-programming

 Also referred to as multitasking- refers to a type of processing where more

than one program are processed apparently at the same time by a single
central processing unit.
 Unlike multiprocessing, in multitasking, the computer has only one CPU. The
computer allocates each program a time slice and decides what order they will
be executed.

Interactive Processing

 There is a continuous dialogue between the user and the computer.

 As the program executes, it keeps on prompting the use to provide input or
respond to prompts displayed on the screen

Advantages of electronic processing

1. Quick processing especially where all required data is available

2. Availability of data and information digitally

3. Distance between entities that are processing data is made non-significant

4. Support for information sharing and collaboration on a wider scale.

Disadvantages of electronic information processing

1. Security of data can be compromised during storage or while in transit on networks
if appropriate measures are not taken

2. Lack of legal frameworks in many countries that should support electronic

processing activities

3. Lack of ICT skills among many knowledge workers to support electronic data
processing.

Topical Questions

1. What similarity is there between:

i> Online processing and real-time processing

ii> Multiprocessing and multi-programming

2. What differences are there between:

i. Online processing and real-time processing

ii. Multiprocessing and multi-programming

3. SHULE Secondary school Board of Governors has asked you to help

them find a computer processing mode that they will introduce to enroll form
one students each year that will allow them to confirm admissions, pay school
fees without necessarily having to travel physically to the school. Which
processing mode would you recommend and why

4. Of the processing modes, which mode is effective for filling

questionnaires online and why?

b) this are a set of stages that data passes through in order to be transformed
into information

c) These are raw facts which do not have much meaning to the user

d) Processed data which has much meaning and can be used in decision
making

2.
3. i) data collection

ii) input

iii) processing

iv) output

4. a) media conversion

b) input validation

c) sorting

5. Display of expected results (information) that can be used in decision making