Topic 1 — What is a Polynomial?

A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of one or more terms, each involving positive integer
powers of variables only. Terms with fractional, negative, or zero powers (such as x½ or 1/y) are not polynomials.
Valid: 2x² − 7xy + 8x 3x³ + 4x² − 3x + 1 Invalid: 5x½ (fractional power) 8/y (negative power)

Type Degree n Real Roots Turning Points

Linear 1 at most 1 at most 0

Quadratic 2 at most 2 at most 1

Cubic 3 at most 3 at most 2

Quartic 4 at most 4 at most 3

Quintic 5 at most 5 at most 4

Key Rule: A degree-n polynomial has at most n real roots and at most (n−1) turning points.

Topic 2 — Quadratic Equations: ax² + bx + c = 0

A quadratic equation has at most two roots. The roots are found using the Quadratic Formula:

x = (−b ± √(b² − 4ac)) / (2a)

If α and β are the two roots of ax² + bx + c = 0, then by Vieta's Formulas:

Relationship Formula How to read it

Sum of roots α + β = −b/a Negative of (b ÷ a)

Product of roots αβ = c/a c divided by a (no minus)

To form a quadratic equation when the roots are known, use:

x² − (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) = 0

Example: Roots are 7 and 3 → Sum = 10, Product = 21 → x² − 10x + 21 = 0

Complex roots always come in conjugate pairs (a + bi and a − bi). Their sum = 2a and product = a² + b². Example: roots 3−2i,
3+2i → sum = 6, product = 13 → x² − 6x + 13 = 0.
Topic 3 — Useful Expressions Involving Roots
Once Σα (= α+β) and αβ are known, any symmetric expression can be evaluated without finding the individual
roots. The key is to rewrite each expression cleverly in terms of Σα and αβ:

Expression Rewrite As Formula Used

α² + β² (α+β)² − 2αβ Expand (α+β)² then rearrange

1/α + 1/β (α + β) / αβ Combine fractions over common denom

1/α² + 1/β² (α² + β²) / (αβ)² Use α²+β² result in numerator

α²β + αβ² αβ(α + β) Factorise out αβ

Worked Example — For 2x² − 4x + 5 = 0 : α+β = 2, αβ = 5/2

α² + β² = (2)² − 2(5/2) = 4 − 5 = −1
1/α + 1/β = 2 ÷ (5/2) = 4/5
1/α² + 1/β² = (α²+β²)/(αβ)² = −1 ÷ (25/4) = −4/25
α²β + αβ² = αβ(α+β) = (5/2)(2) = 5

Key tip: Always factorise expressions cleverly — never expand unless necessary!

Topic 4 — Sum of Squares Identity

A fundamental identity used to find Σα² (sum of squares of roots) without knowing the individual roots:

Identity Proof

Start from: (α + β)² = α² + 2αβ + β²

Σα² = (Σα)² − 2Σαβ Rearrange: α² + β² = (α + β)² − 2αβ
In sigma notation: Σα² = (Σα)² − 2Σαβ
Topic 5 — Cubic Equations: ax³ + bx² + cx + d = 0
A cubic has at most three roots. Any cubic can be written as a(x−α)(x−β)(x−γ) = 0, which when expanded gives
Vieta's relationships between roots and coefficients:

Relationship Formula What it represents

Sum of roots Σα = α + β + γ = −b/a Sum of all three roots

Sum of every root-pair product (NO

Sum of pairs Σαβ = αβ + αγ + βγ = +c/a
minus!)

Product of roots αβγ = −d/a Product of all three roots together

To form a cubic equation when the roots are known:

x³ − (Σα) x² + (Σαβ) x − αβγ = 0

Memory Trick: Signs alternate — Σα gets −b/a, Σαβ gets +c/a, αβγ gets −d/a.

Worked Examples
Example 1 — Find Σα, Σαβ and αβγ for 2x³ − 8x² − 7x + 9 = 0 (a=2, b=−8, c=−7, d=9):

Σα = −b/a = −(−8)/2 = 4
Σαβ = +c/a = −7/2 = −3.5
αβγ = −d/a = −9/2 = −4.5

Example 2 — Form a cubic given Σα = 5, Σαβ = 6, αβγ = −3:

x³ − (Σα)x² + (Σαβ)x − αβγ = 0

x³ − 5x² + 6x − (−3) = 0
x³ − 5x² + 6x + 3 = 0 ✓ (double negative: −(−3) = +3)

Topic 6 — Equations with Related (Transformed) Roots

When the roots of a new equation are a transformation of the roots of an existing equation (e.g. 2α, α+1, α²),
there are two approaches:

Method 1 — Direct Method 2 — Substitution

Compute new Σα, Σαβ, αβγ by scaling: Let Y = f(x) where Y represents the new root.
New roots = k × old roots → multiply Express x in terms of Y, then substitute
Σα by k, Σαβ by k², αβγ by k³. into the original equation and simplify.
Then substitute into forming equation. Safer for: complex transforms (α², α+1...)
Best for: simple multiples (2α, 3α...)
Related Roots — Worked Examples
Example 1 — The roots of x³ + 4x² − 5x − 8 = 0 are α, β, γ. Find the equation with roots 2α, 2β, 2γ.
From original: Σα = −4, Σαβ = −5, αβγ = 8

Method 1 (Direct):
New Σα = 2 × (−4) = −8
New Σαβ = 4 × (−5) = −20 [ pairs multiply by k² = 4 ]
New αβγ = 8 × ( 8) = 64 [ product multiplies by k³ = 8 ]
■ X³ + 8X² − 20X − 64 = 0

Method 2 (Substitution): Let Y = 2x → x = Y/2

(Y/2)³ + 4(Y/2)² − 5(Y/2) − 8 = 0
Y³/8 + Y² − 5Y/2 − 8 = 0 × 8
■ Y³ + 8Y² − 20Y − 64 = 0 ✓ (same answer)

Each root in the transformed equation is exactly 2× the corresponding original root — confirmed by the red dot positions on
both graphs.

Example 2 — The roots of x³ + 6x² − 8x + 3 = 0 are α, β, γ. Find the equation with roots α², β², γ².
From original: Σα = −6, Σαβ = −8, αβγ = −3

New Σα = α²+β²+γ² = (Σα)² − 2Σαβ = (−6)² − 2(−8) = 36 + 16 = 52

New Σαβ = α²β²+α²γ²+β²γ² = (Σαβ)² − 2(αβγ)(Σα)
= (−8)² − 2(−3)(−6) = 64 − 36 = 28
New αβγ = α²β²γ² = (αβγ)² = (−3)² = 9
■ X³ − 52X² + 28X − 9 = 0

Key Identity: Σ(α²β²) = (Σαβ)² − 2(αβγ)(Σα) — most commonly forgotten step!

Formula Sheet — Vieta's Formulas & Key Identities
Sigma Notation — Quick Reference

Formula Quadratic Cubic Quartic Quintic

Σα −b/a −b/a −b/a −b/a

Σαβ αβ = c/a c/a c/a c/a

Σαβγ — −d/a −d/a −d/a

Σαβγδ — — e/a e/a

All-product c/a −d/a e/a −f/a

Pattern: Σα is always −b/a. Σαβ is always +c/a. After that, signs alternate: −d/a, +e/a, −f/a ... This pattern holds for all degrees.

Important Identities (used in every exam)

Identity Formula

Σα² (Sum of squares) (Σα)² − 2Σαβ

Σα³ (Sum of cubes) (Σα)³ − 3(Σα)(Σαβ) + 3αβγ

Σ(α²β²) for cubic (Σαβ)² − 2(αβγ)(Σα)

Forming Equations When Roots Are Known

QUADRATIC: x² − (Σα) x + αβ = 0

CUBIC: x³ − (Σα) x² + (Σαβ) x − αβγ = 0

QUARTIC: x■ − (Σα) x³ + (Σαβ) x² − (Σαβγ) x + αβγδ = 0

Exam Strategy
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Extract Σα, Σαβ, αβγ from the original Manipulate these values for the new Substitute into the forming equation
equation using Vieta's formulas. roots using the identities above. formula. Never skip Step 2!