The Intersection in

Climate and
Architecture for
Tropical Regions

23 Batch
Design Studio IV
CONTENTS

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation ---------- 01-23

Solar Radiation & Heat Gain ---------- 24-52

Precipitation ---------- 53-82

Building Orientation ,Form & Layout ------ 83-97

Shading Device ---------- 98-135

Building Materials ---------- 136-175

Landscaping & Site features ---------- 176-197

 Wind Flow &
Natural
Ventilation
“Space is not just a void;
it is alive with wind”
• Tropical Climate
• Wind Flow
• Wind Flow Pattern
-Tadao Ando
• Wind Rose
• Wind Rose Comparison
• Ventilation
• Natural Ventilation
• Relation between
• Wind Flow & Natural
Ventilation
• Factors

Bat Trang House

- VTN Architects

230110
220106
220119
220132
220136
Tropical Climate
Characteristics of Tropical Climate

High Temperature High Humidity Abandant Rainfall Distinct seasons

A tropical climate is a type of climate characterized by consistently high temperatures and

significant annual rainfall. It is typically found near the equator between the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5°N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S latitude). Tropical climates are defined
by their warm, humid conditions and are essential for diverse ecosystems .
Types of Tropical Climates (Based on Köppen Classification):
[Link] Rainforest Climate (Af):
1. Characteristics: High rainfall throughout the year (no distinct dry season), consistently
warm temperatures.
2. Regions: Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, parts of Southeast Asia.
3. Example: Singapore.
4. Vegetation: Dense rainforests with diverse flora and fauna.
[Link] Monsoon Climate (Am):
1. Characteristics: A short dry season with most rainfall concentrated in the monsoon
months.
2. Regions: South Asia, West Africa, and parts of Southeast Asia.
3. Example: Kolkata, India.
4. Vegetation: Dense forests, but less diverse compared to rainforests.
[Link] Wet and Dry Climate (Savanna) (Aw/As):
1. Characteristics: Distinct wet and dry seasons, with rainfall during the summer months
and dry winters.
2. Regions: Africa (Serengeti), parts of India, and northern Australia.
3. Example: Nairobi, Kenya.
4. Vegetation: Grasslands with scattered trees or shrubs.

Features of Tropical Architecture:

Passive Cooling Cross ventilation

Solar Protection Stack ventilation

Humidity Control Shaded openings

Rainwater Ventilation through

Management Courtyards

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 1

Wind Flow
The study of wind is called anemology. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation
are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet
(Coriolis effect)

"Wind flow global phenomena" refers to large-scale air movement driven by uneven heating
between the equator and poles, creating wind belts like trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies.
Influenced by Earth's rotation and the Coriolis force, these patterns shape global weather and
climate

Fig.: Global wind pattern

"Wind flow local phenomena" refers to small-scale wind patterns, like sea, land, mountain, and
valley breezes, driven by localized temperature and pressure differences due to varying heating and
cooling rates of land, water, or terrain

Fig.: Wind flow and wind Speed data

( Khulna region)

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 2

Wind flow Pattern
Wind flow patterns are the result of air pressure differences and temperature
differences.

The wind flow pattern in Bangladesh varies by season, with strong winds in the
summer and a gentle breeze in the winter

Fig.: Wind Flow differences towards seasons

Fig.: Wind Flow differences towards forms

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 3

Wind Rose

A wind rose is a circular graph that shows the direction and speed of wind at a specific
location over a period of time.

Key features-
•Axes
•Segments
•Radial Length
•Color Coding

A Wind rose diagram shows- Fig. : Example of a wind rose

•Wind direction
•The direction the wind blows from is indicated by each "spoke" around the circle.
•Wind speed
•The length of each spoke indicates how long the wind blows from that
direction. Colors along the spokes can indicate different wind speed categories.
•Calm conditions
•The size of the center circle represents the percentage of calm conditions.

The wind rose is subdivided into wind directions, whereas the resolution is
selectable. The wind directions are given in North (N), South (S), East (E) and West
(W) or in North azimuth degrees (0- 360°):

•N = North (0°)
•NW= Northwest (315°)
•W = West (270°)
•SW = Southwest (225°)
•S = South (180°)
•SE = Southeast (135°)
•E = East (90°)
•NE = Northeast (45°)

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 4

Wind rose typologies-
1. Frequency Wind Rose
•Purpose: Shows how often the wind blows from each direction.
•Representation: Radial bars indicate the percentage of time the wind comes from a specific
direction.
•Use in Architecture: Helps in determining building orientation and placement of openings to
capture prevailing winds.

2. Speed Wind Rose

•Purpose: Displays wind speed ranges for each direction.
•Representation: Bars are divided into segments of different colors or shades, each representing
a speed range (e.g., calm, moderate, strong).
•Use in Architecture: Helps design structures to withstand wind forces and optimize natural
ventilation.

3. Seasonal Wind Rose

•Purpose: Represents wind patterns for specific seasons (e.g., summer or monsoon).
•Representation: Similar to a frequency or speed wind rose but limited to a particular time of
year.
•Use in Architecture: Useful for seasonal adjustments in design, such as shading or ventilation
during hot or rainy periods.

4. Diurnal Wind Rose

•Purpose: Shows wind patterns at different times of the day.
•Representation: Divides wind data into time intervals (e.g., morning, afternoon, evening).
•Use in Architecture: Helps in designing for varying daily wind conditions, like morning
breezes or afternoon gusts.

5. Pollution or Dispersion Wind Rose

•Purpose: Maps wind directions to understand the movement of pollutants.
•Representation: Highlights the transport of air pollutants based on wind direction and speed.
•Use in Architecture: Assists in locating buildings away from polluted wind flows or harmful
emissions.

6. Cumulative Wind Rose

•Purpose: Aggregates wind data over a long period to show overall trends.
•Representation: Combines frequency, speed, and direction into one chart.
•Use in Architecture: Ideal for comprehensive site analysis for long-term design planning.

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 5

Wind rose comparison
(Bangladesh)
Summer Winter

Wind Power
Rose

Wind Speed
Rose

Wind Frequency
Rose

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 6

Wind rose comparison
(Khulna)
Summer Winter

Wind Power
Rose

Wind Speed
Rose

Wind Frequency
Rose

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 7

East-West Axis: Orient the longer side of the building along this
axis.

South Side: Larger windows with shading for breeze and

ventilation.

North Side: Larger windows for natural light with less concern Sun movement during
for heat. Summer

East and West Sides: Minimize windows or ensure they are

shaded.

Sun movement during

Winter

Wind rose Analysis through a build form of Tropical Region

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 8
Wind flow around buildings
Wind pressure on buildings can create positive and negative zones. Positive pressure occurs on
the windward side, while negative pressure develops on the leeward side.

Proper spacing between buildings is important to avoid excessive wind deflection, which can
reduce the effectiveness of natural ventilation

Fig. : Outdoor wind flow fields

* Windward is upwind from the

point of reference, ie, towards the
direction from which the wind is
coming; leeward is downwind
from the point of reference

Fig. Windward and leeward sides of the

prevailing wind direction

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 9

Ventilation
Ventilation in architecture refers to the process Functional Requirements of a Ventilation System
of providing fresh air to indoor spaces while
removing stale air. Proper ventilation helps Rate of Supply of Fresh
control temperature, humidity, and indoor air Air
quality, contributing to comfort and health.
There are several types of ventilation, each with Air movements or Air
its advantages and applications. Changes

Temperature of Air

Humidity

Purity of Air

Design Strategies for Ventilation in Architecture Types of Ventilations-

Building Orientation

Natural
Building form Ventilation

Shading devices Mechanical

Ventilation
Ventilation

Passive cooling & heating Combined

Ventilation

Fig. : Ventilation system Fig. : Ventilation tools

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 10

Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation relates to the natural flow of air between the inside and outside of a
building. In essence, it is the supplying of buildings with fresh air without mechanical systems

The benefits of our natural ventilation systems

Keeping your building cool

Helping reduce moisture

Improving a working environment

Natural ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air from a building using natural
forces such as wind and thermal buoyancy (the tendency of warm air to rise). It is an energy-
efficient and environmentally sustainable method of providing fresh air to indoor spaces,
especially in warm and humid climates.

Fig. Section of natural ventilation

Natural ventilation is a highly sustainable and effective design strategy, particularly for climates
where temperature control is key. By taking full advantage of natural forces, buildings can
maintain comfort while minimizing energy use.

There are two frequently employed natural ventilation methods:

Wind-Based
Ventilation
Natural Ventilation
Buoyancy-Driven
Ventilation

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 11

Wind-Based Ventilation (Cross-Ventilation)
Moving wind near a building will produce different sections of low and high pressure. The
windward part of the house is an area that is high pressure, while the leeward part & roof are low
pressure. Placing different types and sizes of openings in the low and high-pressure sections can
force air to transfer through the building at an increased rate and in the desirable direction.

Fig. : Influence of Wind and Thermal updraft on Ventilation

(Reference: [Link])

Buoyancy-Driven Ventilation (The Stack Effect)

This type of Natural Ventilation seems complex, but it works fundamentally like a fireplace.
Because warm air goes up and cool air remains low, this procedure forces warm air to rise.
The heat produced in buildings goes up towards the ceiling. In huge buildings, where the
construction is of noticeable height, the natural trend of warm air to rise produces air transfer
throughout the whole of the building. This is what is usually introduced as the stack effect or
thermal buoyancy. Warm air goes up through the building and exits via the natural ventilator. The
wall openings at the floor level permit cool air to come in, taking the place of the warm air that
exits.

Fig. : Buoyancy Effect in Natural Ventilation

(Reference: [Link])
Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 12
 *

Combined(Hybrid) Ventilation
Natural Ventilators can also be combined with powered ventilation to keep the entire building
convenient throughout the day.
Powered ventilation is the only choice in some locations. Applications that employ chemicals
or have lower ceilings height or just don’t generate quite adequate heat need powered
ventilation. Eventually, there are many explanations about why powered ventilation may be
vital. Some plant managers utilize systems that employed a natural solution for larger sections
and powered ventilation for operation rooms and smaller areas throughout their locations.

Fig. : Ventilation diagram in a Section

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 13

Advantages of Natural Ventilation
If well fixed and maintained, there are several benefits of a natural ventilation system, compared
with mechanical ones. Natural ventilation can practically supply a high ventilation level more
economically due to the employment of natural powers and large openings. They are more energy
effective, especially if heating is not needed. The systems which are well-designed could be utilized
to provide higher levels of daylight

Fig.: Comfortable Airflow in a Building by using

Natural Ventilation
(Reference: [Link])

Disadvantages of Natural Ventilation

Unpredictability and Control

Pollution and Contamination Risks

Dependency on External Conditions

Operational and Maintenance Issues

Limited Cooling in Hot, Humid

Climates

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 14

 Relation between
Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation

Wind flow
Wind flow refers to the movement of air across and around buildings and their
surroundings, influenced by factors such as wind speed, direction, obstructions, and
building geometry, In architecture.

Supply of Physiological
Fresh Air
02 Cooling

Convective
01 Cooling
03

• The air
• The exchange of
• Depends on movement over
indoor air with the skin
occupancy, number
and activity of the fresh out-door air accelerates
occupants and by can provide heat
the nature of any cooling, if the dissipation in
processes carried out latter (Outer two ways –
in the space. environment) is at
a) Increasing
a lower convective heat
temperature than loss
the indoor air.
b) Accelerating
evaporation

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 15

 Factors

Factors on the indoor wind flow

▪ Orientation
▪ External features
▪ Cross-ventilation
▪ Position of openings
▪ Controls of openings

Orientation
Orientation is a crucial factor in architectural design, affecting energy efficiency, indoor comfort,
and overall environmental performance.
Solar orientation
Here are key aspects to consider:
considerations
Wind direction

Climatic considerations

Energy efficiency

Site factors

Adaptibility

Givoni’s result contradict with common-sense: Wind incidence at 45°would increase the average
indoor air velocity and would provide a better distribution of indoor air movement.

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 16

 Fig.: Effect of wind direction and intel opening size on air velocity distribution

Givoni’s result might contradict common sense regarding wind incidence and indoor air
movement:
[Link]-Sense Expectation:
1. Wind hitting a building at a 45° angle is generally expected to enhance indoor air
velocity and distribution due to its oblique trajectory creating cross-ventilation.
2. It allows wind to enter through openings on one side and exit through opposite
openings, facilitating better airflow patterns.
[Link]’s Finding:
1. Givoni observed that direct wind incidence (perpendicular, 90° to openings) could
sometimes provide higher indoor air velocities compared to oblique wind
incidence (45°).
[Link] Explaining the Contradiction:
1. Pressure Gradient Effect: Direct incidence creates a stronger pressure difference
between windward and leeward sides, driving air more forcefully through
openings.
2. Flow Separation: At oblique angles, wind may partially deflect around the
building rather than fully entering the openings, reducing effective indoor
velocity.
3. Room Configuration: Internal layouts and openings significantly affect how air
flows. For 45° incidence, airflow patterns might become more localized, limiting
uniform distribution.
[Link] Implications:
1. Givoni’s findings emphasize that ideal wind direction is not universally 45° and
depends on factors like building design, opening placement, and local wind
characteristics.
2. Designing for natural ventilation requires considering both wind incidence angles
and building-specific factors.
[Link] through Testing:
1. Wind tunnel experiments or Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) studies can
help confirm whether 45° angles truly enhance indoor airflow in specific cases or
if direct incidence (90°) performs better.

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 17

External Features
• Wind shadows created by obstructions upwind, should be avoided in
positioning the building
• The wind velocity gradient is made steeper by an uneven surface, such as
scattered buildings

A wind shadow is a calm area where the wind doesn't reach due to an obstruction, like a
building, hill, or tree. Wind shadows are also known as dirty air or wind wash

• In an over smooth and open ground, a low building can never obtain air velocities
similar to a taller one
• Any extension of the elevational area facing the wind will increase the pressure build-
up

A tree or a building, will create two wind shadows: one on the side wind comes from and
another on the opposite side

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 18

 Cross Ventilation
• Absence of an outlet opening can be no effective air movement through a
building, even in a case of strong winds
• With a windward opening and no outlet, a pressure similar to that in front of
the building will be built up indoors (stagnant air), which can make
conditions even worse, increasing discomfort.
• Air flow loses much of its kinetic energy each time it is diverted around or
over an obstacle

Position of Openings

Air movement must be ensured through the space mostly used by the occupants
(directed at the body surface): through the 'living zone' (up to 2 m high)

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 19

• Larger solid surface creates a larger pressure build-up and this pushes the
air stream in an opposite direction (see both in plan and in section)

Parapet wall

Plan
Fig.: Position of opening

Control of Openings

• Effect of Sashes: Divert the air flow upwards or downwards

• Effect of Canopies: Eliminate the effect of pressure build-up above the window
• Effect of Louvers: channel the flow into the living zone

Fig: Use of Sashes

Fig: Use of Canopies

Fig: Use of Louvres

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 20

• The largest air velocity will be obtained through a small inlet opening with a large
outlet (forcing air through the opening at a high pressure, and partly due to the ‘Venturi
Effect‘)

• When the inlet opening is large, the air velocity through it will be less, but the total rate of
air flow (volume of air passing in unit time) will be higher.

• The best arrangement is full wall openings on both sides, with adjustable sashes or
closing devices which can assist in channeling the air.

* The Venturi effect refers

to an increase in velocity
and a decrease in pressure
that air experiences when
it passes through a
constriction.

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 21

There are a few things can consider to maximise the natural ventilation

1. Small Inlet, Big Outlet

Opening windows on the windward side a bit smaller than the ones on the
leeward side will create a type of vacuum effect. This increases the speed of
the air flowing through the room.

2. Bottleneck

When wind flows into a large space, like a patio or a large recessed area
outside the wall, and then through a smaller opening, that air is forced to
squeeze through that smaller opening. This increases the velocity of the
wind flowing into the room.

3. Openings At Diagonal Opposites

It is ideal to have windows open on opposite sides of the room. This allows
wind to flow from the windward to the leeward side. Ideally, these windows
should also be at opposite corners of the room so that the wind crosses more
area of that space.

4. Top Vents

Using windows with vents at the top. This could have a similar effect as it gives hot air a place
to escape, especially if they are near the ceiling level.

5. Clerestories and Roof Vents

Jalousies will allow hot air to escape and provide an avenue for cooler air to enter at
low-level windows and doors

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 22

6. Courtyards

A courtyard can also be a good way to reduce the distance wind has to travel
through a home. In the right location, it can reduce the travel distance of the wind
significantly. It also provides an area for warm interior air to escape.

Wind Flow & Natural Ventilation 23

 Solar Radiation and Heat Gain

“Buildings should be designed to

keep the sun out and let the air in.”
-Laurie Baker
• Solar Radiation as a Global
Climatic Factor
• Why Tropical Climate Is So
Hot?
• Climatic Zones, Tropical
Climatic Zone and Bangladesh
• Solar Radiation
• Heat Gain
• Sun Path and Sun Path
Diagram
• Climatic Data Charts
• Using SunCalc in Architecture
• Using Andrew Marsh's 3D Sun
Path Tool
• Comprehensive Thermal
Analysis in Revit
• Steps To Thermal Analysis in
Revit

The Mashrabiya House

- Senan Abdelqader

230130
230132
230133
230135
220131
Solar Radiation as a Global Climatic Factor

Seasons and Earth's Tilt:

•The Earth's axial tilt (23.5°) causes variations in solar radiation throughout the year, leading to
seasonal changes.

Day-Night Cycle:

•Solar radiation affects the daily temperature cycle, with daytime heating and nighttime cooling.
•Areas near the equator experience less variation between day and night compared to higher latitudes.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 24

 Why Tropical Climate Is So Hot?

Tropical climates are hot primarily due to their location near the equator, where the sun's rays strike the
Earth almost directly throughout the year. Here are the main reasons for the heat in tropical climates:

[Link] Sunlight: The equator receives consistent, nearly vertical sunlight all year round, which
delivers more energy per unit area compared to oblique rays in other regions.
[Link] Seasonal Variation: In tropical regions, there is minimal variation in the angle of the
sun’s rays throughout the year, so temperatures remain consistently high.
[Link] Daylight Hours: While day length doesn't vary as much as in higher latitudes, tropical
regions often have longer periods of intense sunlight daily.
[Link] Humidity: Tropical climates are characterized by high humidity, which traps heat in the
atmosphere and makes the air feel hotter.
[Link] Elevation: Many tropical areas are near sea level, where the atmosphere is thicker and
retains more heat.
[Link] to Warm Oceans: Many tropical areas are surrounded by warm ocean waters that
contribute to higher temperatures and maintain warm air currents.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 25

Climate Zones ,Tropical Climate Zone and
Bangladesh

Bangladesh is located between 20°34′N to 26°38′N latitude and

88°01′E to 92°41′E longitude. It lies slightly above the Tropic of
Cancer (23°N), in South Asia, to the east of India and west of Myanmar
(Burma). The country is part of the green zone on this map, which
represents a tropical or subtropical region.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 26

 Tropical Climate and Bangladesh

Bangladesh falls primarily within the

tropical monsoon climate zone. Its
climate can be characterized by three
distinct seasons:
[Link] (Pre-monsoon) –
March to May
•Hot and humid, with temperatures
ranging from 30°C to 40°C.
•High evaporation and occasional
thunderstorms (locally known as
Kalbaishakhi or Nor'westers).
[Link] Season – June to
October
•Heavy rainfall due to the
southwest monsoon winds.
•Temperatures typically range
between 25°C to 35°C.
•This season contributes to around
75-80% of the country’s annual
rainfall.
[Link] (Dry Season) –
November to February
•Cool and dry, with temperatures
ranging from 10°C to 20°C.
•Least rainfall, often with foggy
mornings in some regions.

Bangladesh’s geography, including its flat

deltaic plains and proximity to the Bay of
Bengal, makes it highly vulnerable to
climatic events like floods, cyclones, and
rising sea levels.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 27

 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun. It is composed of visible light,
ultraviolet (UV), and infrared (IR) radiation. When solar radiation reaches a building, it interacts with
materials and surfaces, influencing heat absorption, reflection, and transmission.

Key components of solar radiation include:

•Direct Solar Radiation: Radiation received directly from the sun without scattering.
•Diffuse Solar Radiation: Radiation scattered by the atmosphere.
•Reflected Solar Radiation: Radiation reflected off surfaces like the ground or neighboring
structures.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 28

 Heat Gain
Heat gain in buildings refers to the process by which a building absorbs heat from various internal and
external sources, raising the temperature inside. Understanding heat gain is crucial for designing energy-
efficient buildings and maintaining indoor thermal comfort. Below are the main contributors to heat gain
in buildings:
Heat gain refers to the increase in temperature within a building due to internal and external factors.
Solar radiation is the primary external source of heat gain, influencing thermal performance and energy
consumption. Heat gain can occur via:
•Conduction: Heat transfer through walls, windows, and roofs.
•Convection: Heat transfer through air movement within spaces.
•Radiation: Absorption of solar energy by building materials.
Types of Heat Gain
1. External Heat Gain
This heat enters the building from outside and is primarily influenced by environmental factors.
•Solar Heat Gain: Direct sunlight heats building surfaces like roofs, walls, and windows. Glass windows
contribute significantly due to their transparency to solar radiation.
•Ambient Temperature: Heat transfer occurs through conduction when the external air temperature is
higher than the building's internal temperature.
•Ventilation/Infiltration: Warm outside air enters through doors, windows, or cracks, increasing the
internal temperature.
2. Internal Heat Gain
This comes from activities and equipment inside the building.
•Occupants: Human bodies generate heat as part of metabolic processes.
•Appliances and Equipment: Devices like computers, refrigerators, and lights produce heat during
operation.
•Lighting: Incandescent and fluorescent lights generate a significant amount of heat.
•Processes: Cooking, manufacturing, and other activities produce heat.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 29

 Understanding Heat Gain

The thermal balance, i.e. the existing thermal condition is maintained if,

Qi (internal) + Qs (radiation) ± Qc (conduction)± Qv (convection)± Qm

(mechanical) – Qe (evaporation)= 0

Thermal Calculation

If the sum of this equation is less than zero (negative), the building will be
cooling and if it is more than zero, the temperature in the building will
increase.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 30

Passage of Radiation Through The Atmosphere

Heat Release From The Ground And The

Atmosphere

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 31

 Sun Path and Sun Path Diagram

[Link] Altitude Angle: The angle between the

Sun and the horizontal ground, indicating how
high the Sun is in the sky at a given time.

[Link] Azimuth Angle: The compass direction

from which sunlight is coming, measured
clockwise from North.

[Link] Azimuth: The direction that a building's

wall faces relative to a reference direction,
typically North.

[Link] Difference: The angular difference

between the solar azimuth angle and the wall
azimuth, showing how much the Sun’s direction
deviates from the wall's orientation.

[Link] of Incidence: The angle between the

incoming sunlight and the perpendicular to the
surface it strikes, influencing the intensity of
solar radiation on that surface.

Solar Altitude Angles

Solar Azimuth Angles
Wall Azimuth
Azimuth Difference
Angle of Incidence

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 32

Angle of Incidence
Angle of incidence (β, Beta) will be
required both for selecting the
appropriate solar gain factor in heat
gain calculations through windows and for
calculating the incident radiation on an
opaque surface, e.g. when the sol-air
temperature is to be established.

So,
cos β = cosδ (azimuth difference) × cos γ
(altitude)

γ
Solar Altitude Angle (γ=Gama)
β
δ
Solar Azimuth Angle (α=Alfa):

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 33

Solar Azimuth Angle
(α=Alfa):

The solar azimuth angle is the compass direction from which sunlight is
coming at a specific point on the Earth's surface. It is measured in degrees
from north (0°), moving clockwise around the horizon.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 34

Latitude
Latitude is used to state how far north or south you are, relative to the equator

▪ If you are on the equator, your latitude is zero.

▪ If you are near the north pole or the south pole your latitude is nearly 90 degrees

Latitude is the angle measured at the centre of the Earth, between the
Equator plane and where you are. It is expressed either north or south
and varies from 0° to 90°

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 35

Longitude
Longitude shows your location in an east or west direction, relative to the Greenwich meridian.
▪ Places to the east of Greenwich have longitude angles up to 180° east.
▪ Places to the west of Greenwich have negative angles up to 180° west.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 36

 Interpreting Sun-path Diagram
Azimuth (Horizontal Direction):

1. Compass directions (N, E, S, W) along the diagram’s perimeter.

2. Helps determine the Sun’s horizontal direction relative to true north.

Calculation of (August 11,

02:00 PM)

• Solar Altitude Angle

57°
• Solar Azimuth Angle
248°

•Solar Path: Curved lines indicate the Sun's trajectory across the sky.

•Seasonal Paths:

• Higher paths = Summer (longer days, higher altitude).

• Lower paths = Winter (shorter days, lower altitude).

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 37

Climatic Data Charts: Insights, Applications, and
Sources in Bangladesh

What is a Climatic Data Chart?

A climatic data chart is a visual representation of weather and climate-related information over a
specific period. It helps summarize trends and patterns, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind,
and other atmospheric conditions.

Where Can We Find Climatic Data Charts in Bangladesh?

[Link] Meteorological Department (BMD)

1. Official weather and climate data provider in Bangladesh.
2. Provides reports, charts, and forecasts.
[Link] of Water and Flood Management (IWFM)
1. Offers climatic and hydrological data related to floods and water resources.
[Link] Institutions
1. Universities like BUET, DU, and other research organizations often have climate-
related data for academic purposes.
[Link] Platforms
1. Websites like World Bank Climate Data or NOAA may have data relevant to
Bangladesh.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 38

Types of Data Obtained from Climatic Charts

Temperature Data
•Average, maximum, and minimum daily, monthly, or yearly temperatures.
•Temperature trends over time (e.g., seasonal or annual variations).

Precipitation Data
•Rainfall amounts (daily, monthly, or annual).
•Snowfall or total precipitation levels.
•Distribution of wet and dry seasons.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 39

Types of Data Obtained from Climatic Charts

Humidity
•Relative or absolute humidity levels.
•Seasonal variations in humidity.

Wind Data
•Wind speed and direction.
•Patterns of prevailing winds (e.g., wind roses).

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 40

Types of Data Obtained from Climatic Charts
Sunlight and Solar Radiation
•Number of sunny hours per day or month.
•Solar radiation intensity.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 41

Hourly Heat Gain Analysis: Solar Radiation,
Temperature Difference, and Total Contribution

This chart shows the hourly variation of different types of heat gains over the course of a day.
Here's a breakdown:
1.X-Axis (Hour): Represents the time of day, starting from 6:00 AM to 5:00 PM.
2.Y-Axis (Heat Gain): Indicates heat gain values (units are unspecified but could be in watts or
another relevant unit).
[Link] Plots:
1. Black Squares: Represent Solar Radiation Heat Gain, which increases as sunlight
intensifies during the day, peaks around midday, and then decreases.
2. Red Circles: Represent Temperature Difference Heat Gain, which is relatively
constant throughout the day with slight variation.
3. Blue Triangles: Represent Total Heat Gain, which combines the effects of solar
radiation and temperature difference heat gains, showing a curve similar to solar
radiation heat gain but slightly higher due to the additional contribution.
Key Insights:
•The total heat gain (blue line) is dominated by solar radiation heat gain (black line), as it follows
a similar pattern.
•Temperature difference heat gain (red line) contributes minimally compared to solar radiation.
•Peak heat gain occurs around 12:00 PM to 2:00 PM, when solar radiation is strongest.
•Heat gain reduces significantly in the early morning and late afternoon.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 42

 For calculating,
Solar Altitude Angles
Solar Azimuth Angles
Of different context and time,

[Link]

[Link]

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 43

 Using SunCalc in Architecture
SunCalc is a tool for analyzing the sun's movement
and position, helping architects design buildings that
are efficient, sustainable, and well-lit.

Key Features of SunCalc

Solar Noon
Solar Angles
Daylight Duration
Sun Path Diagrams
Shadow Analysis
Sunrise and Sunset Times

Steps to Collect Information from SunCalc

[Link] SunCalc:
1. Visit SunCalc.
[Link] Your Location:
1. Use the search bar to input the project’s
location (e.g., city, coordinates).
2. The map updates to the specified location.
[Link] the Date:
1. Use the calendar tool to select the desired date
for analysis (e.g., solstices, equinoxes, or a
specific project timeline).
[Link] the Time:
1. Drag the slider at the bottom to see how the
Sun’s position changes throughout the day.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 44

 Using Andrew Marsh's 3D Sun Path Tool
What Information Can You Get from
Andrew Marsh’s 3D Sun Path Tool?

[Link] Angles:
Solar Altitude
Solar Azimuth
[Link] and Sunset Times
[Link] Sun Path
[Link] Sun Path
[Link] and Shading Analysis
[Link] Duration

How to Use the Andrew Marsh 3D Sun Path Tool

[Link] the Tool:
1. Visit the Andrew Marsh 3D Sun Path Tool.
[Link] Location:
1. Enter the location using:
1. City name or coordinates.
2. Alternatively, drag the marker on the map to
the desired location.
[Link] Date and Time:
1. Use the date picker to choose a specific date.
2. Adjust the time slider to analyze solar angles and
Sun position throughout the day.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 45

 For calculating,
Of different context and time,
Thermal Analysis
Heat Gain
[Link]
[Link]
t/overview

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 46

Comprehensive Thermal Analysis in Revit

Key Features Revit Thermal Analysis

Thermal Performance of Building
Envelope
Energy Simulation and Heating/Cooling
Loads Analysis
Solar Analysis
Room/Zone Thermal Comfort Analysis

[Link]

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 47

Comprehensive Thermal Analysis in Revit

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 48

Comprehensive Carbon Insight in Revit

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 49

 Steps To Thermal Analysis in Revit
[Link] Building Model: Start by creating a 3D model of your building in Revit or placing a model
you want to Perform a solar radiation analysis accurately. Include all relevant building elements such
as walls, roofs. Windows, and shading devices. Ensure that the model is properly aligned with the site
location and orientation.
2. Defining the Site Location: Set the project site's correct geographic location and time zone in
Revit. This information is crucial for accurately simulating solar radiation throughout the year
o Go to the "Manage" tab in the Revit toolbar.
o Click on "Location" in the "Location'" panel.
o Specify the geographic location of the project site by either manually entering the coordinates or
using an online map service to find the exact location
.o Set the appropriate time zone for the project site.
3. Specifying the Analysis Period: Determine the specific time range for the solar radiation analysis.
This can be a specific date, a range of dates, or a specific time of day
o Determine the specific time range for the solar radiation analysis, such as a particular date, range of
dates, or a specific time of day.
o Note that Revit allows you to analyze solar radiation throughout the year or for specific periods.
4. Activate Solar Studies: Enable the Solar Studies feature in Revit to access the solar radiation
analysis tools. This feature allows you to simulate the sun's position and intensity throughout the
specified analysis period.
o Go to the "View'" tab in the Revit toolbar.
o Click on "Solar Study" in the "Graphics" panel.
O Choose the desired solar study type, such as "Solar Path" or "Shadow Study.
o Enable the solar study to access the solar radiation analysis tools

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 50

 Steps To Thermal Analysis in Revit
5. Set Up the Analysis Settings: Configure the analysis settings according to your project
requirements. This includes specifying the level of detail, Calculation parameters, and output options
o In the "Manage" tab, click on "Energy Settings" in the "Energy Analysis" panel.
o Specify the desired analysis settings, such as the level of detail, calculation parameters, and output
options.
o Configure options for solar exposure analysis, shading analysis, and
solar heat gain analysis as needed.
6. Run the Solar Radiation Analysis: Initiate the solar radiation analysis in
Revit. The software will calculate and generate a visual representation of the
solar radiation patterns on the building surfaces during the specified analysis
period. This can include sun path diagrams, shadow studies, and solar heat gain analysis.
o Return to the "View" tab and select the appropriate solar study from the "Solar Study" drop-down
menu.
o Click on "Run Study" to start the solar radiation analysis.
o Revit will calculate the sun's position and intensity for the specified analysis period and generate the
corresponding visual representation of solar radiation patterns on building surfaces.
7. Review and Analyze Results: Examine the generated results to understand how solar radiation
interacts with your building. Analyze the patterns of solar exposure, shading effects, and potential
areas of high solar heat gain. Identify areas that may require design modifications to improve energy
efficiency or occupant comfort.
o Examine the generated solar radiation analysis results within the Revit interface.
o Interpret visual representations, such as sun path diagrams, shadow studies, or solar heat gain maps,
to understand how solar radiation interacts with the building.
o Identify areas of high solar exposure, shading effects, and potential
solar heat gain concerns.
8. Iterative Design Process: Based on the analysis results, adjust your building design such as
optimizing window sizes and locations, adding shading devices, or modifying building orientation to
mitigate excessive solar radiation or maximize solar gain, depending on your project goals.
o Based on the analysis results, make design adjustments to optimize energy efficiency or occupant
comfort.
o Modify window sizes and locations, add shading devices, or adjust the building orientation as
needed.
o Repeat the solar radiation analysis process as you refine the design to evaluate the impact
of design changes.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 51

Why the Sun path Diagram is Need for Tropical
Surfaces?
• Manage solar heat gain.
• Optimize daylighting and ventilation.
• Design shading devices that protect building surfaces from excessive heat.
• Enhance energy efficiency by integrating solar energy technologies.

Why the Heat Gain Data is Essential for Tropical

Climate?

Solar heat gain data is essential in building design

for tropical climates because it directly affects
indoor comfort, energy efficiency, and
sustainability. By understanding how much solar
radiation a building will receive at different times
of day and throughout the year, designers can:

• Reduce unwanted heat gain and minimize

cooling costs.
• Maximize the use of natural light while avoiding
glare and overheating.
• Protect building materials and interiors from UV
damage.
• Optimize solar energy systems and passive
heating strategies.
• Create environmentally sustainable and
comfortable living spaces.

Solar Radiation and Heat Gain 52

 Ha Long Villa
- VTN Architects

Precipitation
&
Daylight
• Tropical climate and
Precipitation
• Precipitation
• Driving Rain
• Purposes of Precipitation
Control
• Design considerations for
rainfall
• Rain Water Harvesting
System
• Rain Rose
• Shading Device Consideration
• Structural Condensation
• Daylight

230106
230114
230115
“The sun never knew how great it was
230122 until it hit the side of a building.“
230136 - Louis I Kahn
Tropical climate and Precipitation
Tropical climates are defined by consistently high temperatures (above 18°C year-round) and
significant precipitation.

Fig: Tropical Climatic zone

Key features include:
1. High Annual Rainfall:
Often exceeding 1500 mm, with variation based on location.
2. Distinct Subtypes:
Tropical Rainforest (Af):
Rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year.

Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw):

Marked wet and dry seasons, influenced by the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

3. Role of the ITCZ:

Drives seasonal rainfall by shifting its position with solar heating.

4. Diurnal Rainfall Patterns:

Afternoon thunderstorms due to intense surface heating.

These climatic conditions support lush ecosystems like rainforests and savannas while heavily
influencing agriculture and water resources.

Precipitation and Daylight 53

Precipitation
Precipitation is any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the earth’s
surface. In tropical climatic zone, precipitation is-

• Rain fall
• Fog
• Sleet fall

Rain Sleet

In tropical climates, rain is characterized by:

High Annual Rainfall:

Typically 1500–3000 mm or more.
Intense Downpours:
Heavy, short bursts due to convective storms.
Seasonal Patterns:
Distinct wet and dry seasons influenced by the ITCZ or monsoons.
Diurnal Cycle:
Afternoon or evening rain caused by surface heating.
Large Raindrops:
Due to high humidity and convection.
Frequent Storms:
Thunderstorms and occasional cyclones contribute to rainfall. This rainfall pattern supports
lush vegetation but poses challenges like flooding and soil erosion.

Precipitation and Daylight 54

Driving Rain:
Rain that is propelled by strong winds, causing it to be driven at an angle rather than falling
straight down.

Fig: Driving Rain parallelogram

The angle of driving rain is influenced by wind speed, with higher wind speeds causing raindrops
to fall more obliquely. Studies have shown that at wind speeds of 6 m/s, the average rain
inclination from the vertical is approximately 53°, increasing to about 73.5° at wind speeds of 14
m/s. Another study estimated average slant angles of rain varying from 50° to 65° at various
locations in India.
Therefore, under typical conditions, the angle of driving rain can range from nearly vertical
(0°) in calm conditions to approximately 73.5° from the vertical in strong winds. In extreme
weather events, such as hurricanes, the angle may approach 90°, resulting in nearly
horizontal rain.

Precipitation and Daylight 55

Driving rain index:
In tropical climates, the driving rain index measures the intensity of wind-driven rain that impacts
building surfaces. This index is crucial for designing weather-resistant buildings, particularly in
areas prone to heavy rainfall and strong winds.

Driving rain Diagram in Tropical climatic zone:

Fig: Driving Rain Diagram

Here's a chart depicting driving rain in a tropical climate over a 24-hour period. The rainfall
intensity fluctuates, showing heavy rainfall during certain hours (typically in the afternoon and
evening) with lighter showers at other times. This pattern is common in tropical climates where
intense rain often occurs in bursts.

Precipitation and Daylight 56

 Key factors for determining the driving rain index include:

1. Rainfall Intensity (R): Measured in millimeters per hour, representing the amount
of rain falling within a given time.
2. Wind Speed (W): The velocity of wind, typically measured in meters per second or
kilometers per hour.
3. Angle of Rainfall (A): The angle at which the rain hits the building surface due to
wind influence.
4. Duration and Frequency of Rainfall: Affects the long-term exposure of
buildings to moisture and rain damage.

Driving Rain Index:

RxW

Precipitation and Daylight 57

Impacts:
The Driving Rain Index (DRI) measures the impact of wind-driven rain on building
facades, affecting moisture management and durability in architectural design.

Increased DRI:
Higher exposure to rain requires robust waterproofing, drainage systems, durable materials, and
protective design elements (e.g., overhangs). It increases the risk of water penetration and thermal
performance issues.
Decreased DRI:
Lower rain exposure reduces the need for extensive waterproofing, allowing for simpler designs
and a wider range of materials. This offers more design flexibility but still requires consideration
of other environmental factors.

Adjusting designs to local DRI values ensures resilient, efficient, and context-
appropriate buildings.

To adjust designs for Driving Rain Index (DRI):

1. For High DRI Areas:

-Use sloped roofs, overhangs, and rain screens for protection.
- Select water-resistant materials and seal joints effectively.
- Position buildings to minimize exposure to wind-driven rain and integrate efficient drainage
systems.

2. For Low DRI Areas:

- Simplify waterproofing and drainage requirements.
- Use porous or natural materials and focus on aesthetic freedom.
- Consider flat or minimalist roof designs.

Precipitation and Daylight 58

Purposes of Precipitation Control

• To protect indoor from Direct Water (precipitation) penetration

• To protect indoor from Driving Rain penetration

• To protect indoor from Surface Water penetration

• To protect building from surface water Stagnation

• To protect building structure from Erosion

• To protect indoor from Dampness problem

• To provide surface water drainage system

• To Collect Precipitated Water (rain-water harvesting) for future use

Precipitation and Daylight 59

Design considerations for rainfall

1. Roof Design:

Steep Slopes:
Use steeply pitched roofs (minimum 30°–45°) to
facilitate rapid runoff and prevent water pooling.

Overhangs and Eaves:

Incorporate wide overhangs (at least 600–900 mm) to
shield walls and openings from driving rain.

Waterproofing:
Apply durable and weatherproof roofing materials like
tiles, metal sheets, or treated thatch.
Fig: Roof Design

2. Drainage Systems:

Gutters and Downpipes:

Ensure adequately sized gutters and downpipes to
handle heavy rainfall without overflow.
Use leaf guards to prevent clogging in gutters.

Surface Drainage:
Design site grading to direct surface water away from
the building.
Install open drains or underground pipes to prevent
waterlogging.

Fig: Drainage System

Precipitation and Daylight 60

3. Wall and Facade Design:

Water-Resistant Finishes:
Use non-porous materials or apply water-repellent coatings on exposed walls.
Rain Screens:
Incorporate double-skin facades or rain screens to provide an additional barrier against driving
rain.
Drip Edges:
Add drip grooves or projections to prevent water from running down walls.

Fig: Drip Grooves Fig: Projected Grooves Fig: Shading Device

4. Openings and Windows:

Recessed Openings:
Design windows and doors with deep recesses to reduce rain penetration.
Shading Devices:
Use sloped louvers, vertical fins, or canopies to block driving rain.
Sealing:
Ensure proper sealing of window and door frames to prevent leaks.

Rain
Wind

Fig: Shading Devices in opening

Precipitation and Daylight 61
Rain Water Harvesting System

Rainwater Harvesting is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run
off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface (Often by a gutter) and redirected to a
tank, aquifer, reservoir etc. by different filtration process.

Fig: Rain Water Harvesting System

Precipitation and Daylight 62

Rain Rose
Rain rose is a graphical representation used to depict the relationship between rainfall and wind
direction, often employed in tropical housing and building design to evaluate the effects of driving
rain. It is similar to a ‘wind rose’, but instead of just showing wind direction and speed, it also
includes the intensity and frequency of rainfall associated with each direction.

Here is a rain rose chart displaying

rainfall distribution across different
directions. The chart uses a polar
coordinate system, with the length of
each segment representing the
amount of rainfall associated with a
specific direction. The units of
measurement for the rainfall in a rain
rose chart are typically millimeters
(mm) or inches, depending on the
region or standard being followed.
In the example chart above, the
rainfall values are assumed to be in
millimeters (mm).

Key Features of a Rain Rose:

1. Axes for Wind Direction: The chart is divided into sectors corresponding to
cardinal and intercardinal wind directions (e.g., N, NE, E, etc.).
2. Rainfall Intensity: The length of the bars or spikes in each sector represents the
intensity of rainfall for that particular wind direction.
3. Frequency of Occurrence: The width or density of the bars may show the
frequency of rain from that direction.
4. Wind Speed: In some cases, color coding or additional markers may indicate the wind
speed associated with rainfall events, giving insight into the likelihood of driving rain.

Precipitation and Daylight 63

A Rain rose chart can provide valuable insights in architecture, particularly when designing
buildings and infrastructure in regions with varying rainfall patterns. Here are some decisions that
can be informed by a rain rose chart:

1. Roof Design
Use the data from the chart to calculate the volume of water that needs to be drained from roofs or
other surfaces in each direction.
Where:
Q : Rainfall runoff (volume or flow rate)
Q = I . A .C
I : Intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) from the rain rose chart
A : Catchment area (e.g., roof area in m²)
C : Runoff coefficient (depends on the material, e.g., concrete or grass)

2. Facade and Wall Protection

Material Selection: Use weather-resistant materials on facades that face the dominant rainfall
direction.

Waterproofing: Enhance waterproofing measures on walls and windows exposed to the heaviest
rain.

3. Orientation of Openings

Calculate the optimal orientation of the building by minimizing exposure to heavy rainfall based
on the chart.
Example: If the rain rose shows maximum rainfall from the west, orient openings and facades
away from the west to reduce water ingress.

[Link] Risk Mitigation

Foundation Design:
Plan for elevated foundations or flood defenses if the chart indicates heavy rainfall in specific
directions.

Drainage Systems: Design robust systems to prevent waterlogging near critical areas.

Precipitation and Daylight 64

Shading Device Consideration

1. Angled Overhangs and Eaves:

• Roof overhangs and shading projections must be angled and extended sufficiently to protect
walls and openings from heavy rain.
• The slope of the overhang should ensure that rainwater is directed away from the building,
reducing water ingress and wall dampness.

Fig: Overhangs

2. Integration of Drip Edges:

• Shading devices, such as horizontal

overhangs, are recommended to have drip
edges or grooves to channel water away
from the building façade.
• This prevents water from running down the
walls and causing staining or moisture-
related damage.

Fig: Drip Edges

Precipitation and Daylight 65

3. Slatted or Louvered Shading Devices:

•Louvers or slatted shading devices can be designed to allow airflow while simultaneously
shielding against rain.

•In heavy rainfall areas, the angle of the louvers should be such that they deflect rainwater
effectively while maintaining ventilation.

Only type 'M'

was found to be
capable of
keeping out water
at wind velocities
up to 4 m/s and
ensuring a
horizontal air
flow into the
building. The air
velocity
reduction varies
between 25 and
50%.

Fig: Different types of Louvers

Comparison between Horizontal and Egg-crate Shading device:

Fig: Egg-Crate Shading Device Fig: Horizontal Shading Device

Precipitation and Daylight 66

Aspect Horizontal Egg-crate shading device
shading
device
Rain protection Limited to Effective for wind driven rain and oblique
vertical rain rain.
ineffective for
oblique rain.
Wind-driven Offers minimal Protects against rain from multiple
rain protection as directions due to vertical fins.
rain can bypass
the overhang.

Coverage and Only shields

Covers both directly below and at
Suitability for directly below
Regions the overhang. oblique angles, offering wider protection.
Low wind- High wind-speed areas with frequent
speed areas or driving rain.
where rain is
mostly vertical.
Applications Smaller Large facades or areas exposed to
windows and significant wind and rain. |
areas with
minimal rain
exposure.
Fig: Comparison between Horizontal and Egg-crate Shading device

4. Drainage Considerations:
•Adequate provision for rainwater drainage must accompany the design of shading devices.
•Gutter systems can be integrated with overhangs to prevent water pooling or uncontrolled dripping.

Precipitation and Daylight 67

 Rain Penetration Depth:
The depth of rain penetration (P) under a horizontal or
angled overhang is estimated using:

P = h . tanθ

Where,
h= height of the
shading device from
the ground
θ= Inclination angle
of driving rain

Overhang Length: Fig: Rain penetration Depth

For protection, the overhang length (L)
should exceed (P)

L ≥ h . tanθ
Design Guidelines

1. Horizontal Overhangs: Effective for low angles of rain (e.g., vertical to 45°).
Recommended length: 1.2–1.5 times the height of the exposed opening.

2. Angled Louvers or Canopies:

Ideal for rain with high wind speeds (angles up to 80°).
- Adjust angles to match local rain patterns for maximum coverage.

3. Side Protection:
Add vertical side fins or panels to block rain entering from lateral directions.

Precipitation and Daylight 68

 Structural Condensation

Structural condensation refers to the occurrence of condensation within the structure or on

structural elements of a building, often resulting from temperature differences and poor
thermal insulation. This phenomenon typically arises in tropical and humid climates where there
is a high level of moisture in the air and significant temperature differentials between the
interior and exterior of a building.

Precipitation and Daylight 69

Relative Humidity(RH) is a function of
temperature and as the air cools down ,
without changing its moisture content, RH
increases. When RH is 100% , dew or
condensation appears. The temperature at
which this happens is referred to as the “
Dewpoint temperature”. While the exact
dew point temperature is not fixed and
depends on specific environmental
conditions , the Psychrometric chart helps
us to study air-moisture properties, which
helps us to calculate at which point the dew
might appear. First we need the exterior
temperature which is located on the X axis
and the RH of atmosphere which is on the
left side Y axis. The RH curve and the
temperature will intersect at a point. If we
follow the point to the right side Y axis , we
will be able to find the exact temperature at
which the condensation will occur . If we
make a cross –section of the wall and find
the interior and exterior temperature , we
will be able to map the exact point at which
the condensation will take place.

Fig: Psychrometric Chart

Precipitation and Daylight 70

Causes of Structural Condensation

[Link] Gradient:
The temperature gradient graph
shows the temperature drop across
each material layer from the interior
(20°C) to the exterior (0°C). The
slope of the line in each layer
represents the material's thermal
resistance. Steeper slopes indicate
higher resistance, while gentler slopes
suggest lower resistance. Heat flows
from the warmer interior to the
colder exterior, as indicated by the
arrows. This is typical of heat transfer
through building envelopes in colder
conditions. This setup is designed to
manage heat transfer effectively, with
insulating layers like the cavity and
wood wool minimizing heat loss. It
demonstrates how materials with
varying thermal properties are layered
to achieve thermal comfort and energy
efficiency in buildings.

[Link] Insulation:
Inadequate thermal insulation can cause parts of a building's structure to cool excessively,
especially in air-conditioned interiors, leading to condensation.
[Link] Humidity Levels:
The presence of excessive moisture in tropical climates increases the likelihood of structural
condensation, particularly when combined with air-conditioned interiors or night-time
cooling.
[Link] Penetration:
When moisture penetrates the structure through cracks, porous materials, or capillary action,
and meets cooler parts of the structure, condensation can form within the structural layers.

Precipitation and Daylight 71

Implications of Structural Condensation

[Link] Deterioration:
1. Persistent condensation can weaken structural materials, especially in reinforced
concrete where it promotes corrosion of steel reinforcement.
[Link] and Mildew:
1. Moist conditions within structural layers can encourage mold growth, reducing
indoor air quality and causing health issues.
[Link] Inefficiency:
1. Condensation increases thermal inefficiency by dampening insulation layers, which
reduces their effectiveness.
[Link] Damage:
1. Repeated cycles of condensation and evaporation can lead to cracking, spalling, and
other forms of structural damage over time.

Preventive Measures
[Link] Insulation:
1. Use proper insulation materials to minimize thermal bridges and maintain a consistent
surface temperature across structural elements.
[Link] Barriers:
1. Incorporate vapor barriers in walls, roofs, and other structural components to prevent
moisture penetration.
[Link]:
1. Provide adequate ventilation to remove moisture-laden air and reduce indoor humidity
levels.
[Link] Selection:
1. Use materials with low thermal conductivity and high resistance to moisture to minimize
condensation risks.

Fig: Usage of materials

Precipitation and Daylight 72

Daylight

Sources of light:
The primary source of natural lighting is sun ,but the light arriving from the sun maybe partly
diffused by the atmosphere and the locally prevailing atmospheric conditions will determine
how this light will reach a building . Light may reach from following ways from the sun-

• Diffused or Skylight
• Externally reflected light
• Internally reflected light
• Direct Sunlight

Fig: Components of daylight

Precipitation and Daylight 73

 Daylight Factor (DF)
The Daylight Factor (DF) is a measure of the amount of natural daylight available inside a
building compared to the daylight available outside under overcast sky conditions. It is the
ratio of the indoor illuminance (at a specific point inside the building) to the outdoor
illuminance (under a standard overcast sky) multiplied by 100.
Formula:

DF(%) = SC + IRC + ERC

Components of Daylight Factor:

The DF consists of three components:

[Link] Component (SC):

The amount of daylight received directly from the sky.

[Link] Reflected Component (ERC):

The daylight reflected from external surfaces (e.g., nearby buildings, ground, or other
structures) into the space.

[Link] Reflected Component (IRC):

The daylight reflected off internal surfaces (e.g., walls, ceilings, floors) within the space.

Typical Values:

•Below 2% DF:
• Insufficient daylight, requiring artificial lighting during the day.
•2–5% DF:
• Adequate daylight for general use; artificial lighting may still be required for detailed
tasks.
•Above 5% DF:
• Well-lit space with sufficient daylight; artificial lighting is rarely needed.

Precipitation and Daylight 74

Supplementary Artificial Lighting :

Supplementary artificial lighting is necessary to complement natural lighting, especially in

spaces where daylight is insufficient, such as at night or in areas with poor light penetration.
This approach is particularly significant in tropical climates to achieve adequate illumination
while maintaining energy efficiency and thermal comfort.

• It is difficult to provide adequate daylight in side-lit rooms with a depth greater than three
times the window head height (6m approx.).

• For rooms deeper than this a system known as PSALI (Permanent Supplementary Artificial
Lighting of the Interiors) has been developed.

• Interior parts of the room are lit permanently by electric lights to provide necessary
illumination.

Ways of reducing SALI:

The size of a window or skylight controls

the amount
of daylight a room receives. The location
and orientation of a
window or skylight, therefore, can be more
important
than its size in determining the quality of
daylight a
room receives.

An opening can be positioned to receive

direct sunlight at certain times, providing
strong illumination and sharp contrasts,
especially at midday. However, issues like
glare and heat can be managed using
shading devices, trees, or
nearby structures.

Precipitation and Daylight 75

 The sky vault is a beneficial source of
daylight since it remains fairly constant,
even on cloudy days, and can help to
soften the harshness of direct sunlight and
balance the light level within a space.

The location of an opening affects the

manner in which natural light enters a
room and illuminates its forms and
surfaces. When located entirely within a
wall plane, an opening can appear as a
bright spot of light on a darker surface.

A visual
representation of
improved lighting
after using
supplementary
artificial lighting
with daylight

Fig: A Simulation of Illumination using VELUX daylight visualizer

Precipitation and Daylight 76

Task Light:
A task light is a type of lighting fixture designed to provide focused, localized illumination for
specific tasks or activities, such as reading, writing, cooking, sewing, or working at a desk. It is
intended to enhance visibility and reduce eye strain by directing light exactly where it is needed,
often with adjustable or directional features. Task lighting is a key element in layered lighting design
and complements ambient and accent lighting in a space. Examples include desk lamps, under-
cabinet lights, and pendant lights.

Different tasks require different lighting levels. Common recommendations (in lux) for various tasks
are:
• General office work (writing, reading): 300–500 lux
• Detailed tasks (crafting, assembly): 750–1000 lux
• Precision tasks (surgery, intricate work): 1500+ lux

To calculate the Required Luminous Flux (Lumens):

Lumens = Lux × Area (square meters)

Example:
If an office desk area is 1.5 m² and requires 500 lux, the required lumens would be:

500 × 1.5 = 750 lumens

Precipitation and Daylight 77

Task Light Chart for Residence :

Room / Area Recommended Lux Common Light

Level Sources
Living Room(General) 150-300 lux Ceiling fixtures ,
floor lamps
Living Room 400-500 lux Table lamps ,
(Reading) adjustable floor
lamps
Kitchen 500-750 lux Pendant light ,
spotlight
Dining Area 200 – 400 lux Chandeliers ,
Pendant light
Bedroom(reading) 300-500 lux Bedside Lamp ,
wall-mounted
lamps
Bedroom (General) 150-500 lux Ceiling Fixtures ,
Bedside Lamps
Bathroom 200-400 lux Ceiling Fixtures ,
vanity Lighting
Home Office(Task 500-750 lux LED Desk lamps
work) ,Task lights
Hallways / Stairs 100-300 lux Wall sconces ,
Ceiling fixtures
Garage / Workshop 300-750 lux Tube lighting ,
floodlights

Precipitation and Daylight 78

Glare in daylighting

Glare in daylighting is described as a condition where excessive brightness or extreme contrasts

in the field of vision cause discomfort or a reduction in visual performance. It is an undesirable
effect of daylight that needs to be minimized in building design, especially in tropical climates.

Types of Glare:

1. Direct Glare:
1. Caused by excessively bright light sources, such as direct sunlight entering through
unshaded windows or openings.

2. This type of glare can be particularly intense in tropical regions where sunlight is
strong.

2. Reflected Glare:
1. Occurs when sunlight is reflected off shiny or polished surfaces (e.g., glass, metal,
or glossy floors), creating areas of brightness that can disrupt visual comfort.

Factors Contributing to Glare:

1. Large Window Areas:

1. Unshaded or poorly oriented large windows can admit excessive sunlight, increasing the
risk of direct glare.

2. High Reflectivity:
1. Materials with high reflectivity, such as polished tiles, glass, or white-painted surfaces,
contribute to reflected glare.

3. Improper Shading Devices:

1. Inadequate or improperly designed shading devices fail to block excessive light, leading
to glare.

Precipitation and Daylight 79

Calculating glare discomfort:

Fig: Glare Constant Nomogram

The lower table provides horizontal and vertical angular displacements of the glare source
relative to the observer. These angles determine the glare source's influence based on its
positioning.

Precipitation and Daylight 80

How to Use the Nomogram:

•Identify the glare source's luminance (Lₛ), the luminance of the environment (Lₑ), and the
source's angular position relative to the observer.

•Use the chart to find the corresponding glare constant (g), combining these values.

•A higher glare constant indicates greater discomfort, requiring adjustments in lighting design.

Purpose:

•The tool assists in designing spaces that minimize glare discomfort, essential in tropical
climates where sunlight is intense.

•It allows designers to select appropriate shading, light positioning, and materials to enhance
visual comfort.

Fig: Heat Glare inside a room

Precipitation and Daylight 81

Large windows are likely to lead to conditions of sky - glare and
excessive heat transfer.

Preventative Measure:

[Link] Louvers with Angled

Blades :

- The louver blades are set at an angle

to optimize natural light entry while
minimizing direct sunlight penetration.

- The angle, shown as 15°, is critical to

block direct solar radiation during peak
sunlight hours while allowing diffuse
daylight.

2. Light Diffusion and

Reflection:
Fig: A Special Louvre System
- The louvers are positioned to reflect
light into the interior, diffusing it evenly
across the space and reducing glare.
Two critical points (nearest to window) are taken
as: - The geometry prevents excessive
A = standing - 1.70m height , 1.10 m to window brightness and ensures softer, more
B = sitting -1.20m height, 0.80m to window uniform lighting inside.

Precipitation and Daylight 82

Building
Orientation,
Form, and
Layout

Content
➢ Building Orientation
➢ Types of Orientation
➢ Solar Radiation
➢ Wind Circulation
➢ Form & Planning
➢ Courtyard Design
➢ Layout
➢ Vaastu Shastra

“The placement
of a building should 230120
not disrupt the harmony 230124
of nature but enhance it.” 230125
230128
– Geoffrey Bawa 220130
Building Orientation
Building orientation in architecture refers to the positioning of a structure in relation to cardinal
directions (north, south, east, and west), site conditions, climatic factors, and environmental
elements. It plays a crucial role in achieving energy efficiency, comfort, and functionality while
balancing aesthetic and cultural considerations.

• In composite climate orientation of building is preferable in north - east and southwest

direction.
• This helps in receiving less radiations which results in lesser heat gain and reduces the overall
air conditioning requirement and thus saves energy.
• Proper orientation also helps in receiving natural light and ventilation.

Types of Orientation:
• Angular orientation
• Perpendicular orientation
• East-west orientation
• North-south orientation
North-south
orientation

Angular
orientation

East-west
orientation

Fig-4.1: Different types of Building Orientation

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 83

Solar Radiation:
Building orientation affects energy
use, daylight, and comfort. South-
facing designs capture sunlight in
cold climates, while reducing east-
west exposure lowers heat in
warm areas. Shading and solar
panels optimize efficiency.
Fig-4.2: Sun-path guided Form Orientation

Fig-4.3: Building Orientation in respect of sunlight

Wind/Ventilation:
A wind incidence at 45° would increase the average indoor air velocity and would provide a better
distribution of indoor air movement.

Fig-4.4: Winds flow impact in building environment.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 84
Wind and ventilation impact building orientation by influencing energy efficiency, thermal
comfort, and indoor air quality. Proper orientation can harness prevailing winds for natural
ventilation, reducing cooling needs in warm climates. Conversely, wind barriers or strategic
layouts can minimize heat loss and drafts in cold climates. Factoring wind patterns ensures optimal
airflow, comfort, and energy savings.

Pros and Cons

Fig-4.5: Building Orientation According To Wind

Fig-4.6: Form Layout According To Wind

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 85

Wind Circulation Based On Building
Orientation
Orientation Description
When form north-south elongated:
• Limited Cross-Ventilation
• Wind Funnel Effect
• Reduced Exposure to East and West Sun.
• High Heat Gain on Long Facades:

When form northeast-southwest elongated:

• Optimal Cross-Ventilation
• Wind Pressure will be Reduced
• Morning and Evening Sunlight
• Reduced Heat Gain

When form northwest-southeast elongated:

• Moderate Alignment with Prevailing Winds
• Potential Cross-Ventilation
• Morning Sunlight
• Afternoon Sunlight
When form west-east elongated:
• Minimize Cross-Ventilation
• Wind Pressure on Short Facades
• Morning and Afternoon Sunlight
• Heat Gain on Long Facades
When form is U shaped has a courtyard inside, if the
form is northwest-southeast elongated and courtyard is
facing south :
• Prevailing Summer Winds can enter the courtyard
effectively
• limit cross-ventilation along the primary axis.
• Longer Sides may lead to heat gain.
• Shading devices, vegetation, or pergolas can
control excessive heat gain.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 86

Orientation Description
When form is U shaped has a courtyard inside , if the form is
north-south elongated
• Courtyard as a Funnel
• effective at capturing summer winds
• minimizes solar gain on the longer sides
• The U-shape creates self-shading

When form is U shaped has a courtyard inside , if the form is

northwest-southeast elongated and courtyard is east facing
• The southeast-facing portion of the U can partially capture
summer winds, but the east-facing courtyard may limit direct
airflow from the prevailing wind direction.
• Openings on the southeast and northeast sides can enhance
airflow into the courtyard and along the building, creating
cross-ventilation.
• The east-facing courtyard receives morning sunlight,
providing warmth in cooler months, and gets shaded in the
afternoon, keeping it cooler.
• The northwest side experiences intense afternoon heat, while
the southeast side has moderate morning heat gain but
remains shaded later in the day.

When form is U shaped has a courtyard inside, if the form is

northeast-southwest elongated and courtyard is east facing:
• summer winds from the south/southeast can partially enter the
courtyard
• Cold winds from the north/northwest will primarily hit the
northeast side
• The east-facing courtyard will receive abundant morning
sunlight, warming the space naturally and creating bright,
inviting areas.
• The southwest-facing side will receive strong afternoon sun,
leading to significant heat gain.

When form is U shaped has a courtyard inside, if the form is

northwest-southeast elongated and courtyard is north facing
• Cross-ventilation can be enhanced by incorporating openings
along the southeast and northwest sides of the form.
• Cold winter winds can directly enter the courtyard due to its
orientation.
• The north-facing courtyard will receive indirect sunlight
throughout most of the day.
• Northwest Side will receive intense afternoon sunlight,
leading to significant heat gain.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 87

Form & Planning
• Moderately compact internal planning
• Courtyard type buildings are most suitable
• Buildings should be grouped to allow prevailing breezes when it is
necessary
• Moderately dense, low rise development is suitable
• Ensure protection of outdoor spaces
• Mutual shading out external walls
• Shelter from wind in cold season
• Shelter from radiation and dust in summer season
• During hottest months separate day and night rooms
• Shading of walls is desirable but not critical
• Roof with low transmittance and good thermal capacity
• Double roof is not needed
• External openings require shading required.

Fig-4.7: Winds flow impact in building

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 88

Courtyard
Design
External Layout:

• Courtyards act as thermal buffers, reducing heat

buildup and providing shaded outdoor areas.

Fig-4.8: Air circulation through a

courtyard
• Strategic vegetation in courtyards and outdoor
spaces can cool surrounding areas.

• The courtyard to fulfil its threefin climatic task in

buildings such as cooling, lighting and ventilation
and to provide efficient environmental
performance, the space conceivers (the
architects) most understand the basic courtyard Fig-4.9: Solar radiation & wind
design variants for effective optimization. movement in summer

• The amount of energy consumed in a building is

directly proportional to how long the courtyard is
(it’s length), that the amount of solar heat gain in the
courtyard will be minimal or maxima as its length is
varied.
Fig-4.10: Solar radiation & wind
movement in winter

• The ability of un-shaded courtyard

with natural features within its
envelope and building height ratio for
providing thermally comfortable
outdoor spaces according to different
configurations and scenarios.
Fig-4.4: Winds flow impact in building

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 89

 Form and Layout
Orienting longer facades along the north
optimizes natural lighting and energy
efficiency. In summer, it ensures glare-free,
diffuse light without excessive heat gain,
reducing cooling needs. During winter, the
south-facing shorter facades allow sunlight
penetration to warm interiors. This passive
solar design enhances comfort, minimizes
energy consumption, and supports Fig-4.11: Effectiveness of North
sustainable living.
Elongated Form

Fig-4.12: Effectiveness of North Elongated

Form

Fig-4.13: If a site has multiple buildings, they Fig-4.14: Taller forms in the wind
should be arranged in ascending order of their direction of prevailing wind can alter
heights and be built on stilts to allow the wind movement pattern for low
ventilation lying buildings behind them

Fig-4.15: Place buildings at 30 or 45° angle to the Fig-4.16: Staggered layout helps in
direction of wind for enhanced ventilation. Form accentuating wind movement
can be staggered in the wind facing direction also to
achieve the same result.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 90

 Fig-4.17: Effective Form Layout

Influence of Building Form

Fig-4.18: Effective Form Layout

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 91

Building Form and Layout for Tropical Climate

Form & Layout Sunlight Wind None

Long axis oriented Provides -

east-west to opportunities for
Rectangular minimize solar heat cross-ventilation
gain. with openings on
opposite sides.
May require -
Reduces exposed
Compact strategic openings
surface area to limit
to enhance natural
heat gain
ventilation.

Courtyard
Central courtyard Facilitates airflow
creates shaded areas through stack effect,
and indirect lighting pulling warm air
throughout the day upwards and out of
the space.
Alternating projections -
create self-shading
between sections of the
building
Staggered Allows wind to flow
around and between
building segments,
enhancing ventilation.
Raised on stilts to Promotes airflow -
Elevated avoid heat and underneath the
humidity from the building, keeping
ground interiors cooler.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 92

Form Sunlight Wind None

Clustered Buildings Must align

positioned close carefully to
together with avoid blocking
shared shading wind paths while
devices to block maintaining
direct sunlight ventilation.
Sloped Roof Insulated, Enhances -
Design reflective, and upward
sloped roofs ventilation when
minimize heat ridge vents are
absorption included.
while
preventing
pooling of rain
Irregular Forms Poor orientation Inconsistent Non-linear zig-
leads to airflow due to zag shapes
excessive heat misaligned disrupt air
exposure. openings. balance.
Large Glazed High solar heat Poor ventilation Full-glass
Facades gain unless unless additional structures
adequately openings are without shading.
shaded. provided.

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 93

Vaastu Shastra
Vaastu Shastra has evolved to meet modern needs, but its core principles, rooted in Vedic traditions,
remain unchanged. It emphasizes the shape and orientation of structures for channeling positive energy
and ensuring prosperity.

উত্তে খপ ত য় ঘবেে ে জ ; পশ্চিে খপ ত য় ত ে প্রজ ।

দশ্চিন খপ ত য় শ্চনশ ন ন ই; পূে ব খপ ত য় মুব ছ ই !!
Key Points:

Shapes and Directions:

Symmetrical plots (rectangles or squares) are

auspicious, promoting well-being and happiness.
Irregular shapes (oval, circular) are inauspicious,
leading to negative outcomes.
Home Orientation:

Homes in any cardinal direction (North, South, East,

West) are favorable if Vastu principles are followed.
The main entrance is vital and must align with one of
the 9 auspicious "gates" (ex. Mukhaya, Indra, Soma).

Fig-4.19: Vastu Shastra

পূবে হ াঁস,পশ্চিবে ে াঁশ,

উত্তবে কল আে দশ্চিবে খ ল !

This Maxima of Khona talks about house

[Link] in the east means a waterbody
should should be on the east side of the house so
the wind that flows from the south-east side
would be [Link] in the west
means to save the house from the western heat
from the scorching [Link] banana tree in the
north means the crop should be in the north of
the house. And lastly the south should be open
for ventilation.

Fig-4.20: Form Orientation According to Vastu

Shastra

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 94

Direction-Specific Guidelines:
North-facing Home: Associated with wealth (Lord Kuber). Main entrance in the north; kitchen in
the northwest or south.
• The northeast corner is the best spot for the living room in a North-facing house.
• The Southeast corner is ideal for the kitchen, as it is the zone of Agni or the fire element.
• The Southeast corner is ideal for the kitchen, as it is the zone of Agni or the fire element.
• Bathroom or toilet should be located in the West or Northwest part of the house.

Fig-4.21: Plan of North-facing Home

South-facing Home: Misunderstood but can bring positivity with the entrance at the center of
the south-facing wall.
Pooja room in the east or south; sunlight management is crucial.
• The underground water tank or storage should typically be situated in the northeast portion of your
property.
• In south facing house Vastu, the thickness of walls also holds significance.
• The kitchen should ideally be located in the southeast area.
• The master bedroom should preferably be in the southwest

Fig-4.22: Plan of South-facing Home

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 95
East-facing Home: Favorable for health and fortune; early morning sun rays bring positive
energy. Main entrance in the middle; living room in the northeast; bedroom in the southwest.
• The living room in the northeast section to enhance communication and relationships within the
household.
• The southeast corner is perfect for the kitchen, as it is governed by the element of fire.
• The southwest area of the house is recommended for the master bedroom to ensure stability and
strength.
• Positioning the children's bedrooms in the northwest can contribute to their concentration and
overall success.
• The northeast is the most serene and pure area, ideal for a Pooja room or a space for
meditation.

Fig-4.23: Plan of East-facing Home

West-facing Homes: Brings wealth and prosperity, especially for certain professions. Main
entrance aligned with Vastu principles; pooja room in the northeast or west. Money plants should be
placed in the southeast for good luck.
• Plant trees on the front side of the house
• Avoid using large glass designs in the west
• Create living room in the north-west
• Make bedroom in the south-west corner
• Have kitchen in south-east corner
• Worship room can be placed in north-east
• Optimum location for toilet/bathroom in the north-west
• Have even number of doors in the house
• Avoid windows in the west and south side of the house

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 96

A west-facing home can optimize sunlight and follow Vastu Shastra principles to enhance living
conditions. Modern living has evolved, but ancient practices can still be applied effectively.
Strength and stability are essential for any home to endure over time. Choosing a reliable building
partner like JK Cement ensures durability and strength with its superior grey cement products.

Adhering to these Vastu principles ensures harmony, positivity, and

prosperity in modern homes.

Building Orientation for Tropical Climate

North-facing South-facing East-facing West-facing

Type of building
Home Home Home Home

Main Entrance North South East West

North-East or South-East or East or North- North-West or

Living Room
North South East North

South-East South-East South-East South-East

Kitchen (alternative: (alternative: (alternative: (alternative:
North-West) North-West) North-West) North-West)

Master Bedroom South-West South-West South-West South-West

West or North- West or North- West or North- West or North-

Children's Room
West West West West

Pooja Room North-East North-East North-East North-East

Bathroom (with
South or South-East or South or South- South-East or
proper
South-East North-West East North-West
ventilation)
South-West or South-West or South-West or South or South-
Staircase
South-East South-East South-East West

Verandah,
Balconies
North or East North or East East or North East or North

Overhead Water
Tank
South-West South-West South-West South-West

South-West or South-West or South-West or South-West or

Storeroom
West West West West

Building Orientation, Form, and Layout 97

SHADING DEVICE
With respect to Radiation and Precipitation

• 1.0 RELATION WITH TROPICAL CLIMATE Shading devices are the eyebrows of
• 2.0 SHADING DEVICE
• 3.0 SOLAR SHADING
architecture - they protect, they
• 3.1 THE SUN POSITION express, they define."
• 3.2 SOLAR GEOMETRY - Jean Nouvel
• 3.3 SUN PATH DIAGRAM

• 4.0 FORMULA TO CALCULATE SHADING

• DEVICE
• 4.1 SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE
• 4.2 SOLAR ALTITUDE ANGLE
• 4.3 WALL AZIMUTH
• 4.4 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
• 4.5 HSA
• 4.6 VSA
• 4.7 CHART

• 5.0 SHADING PROTECTOR

• 6.0 SHADOW PROFILE
• 7.0 SHADING DEVICE OPTIONS
• 8.0 TYPES OF SHADING DEVICE
• 8.1 USABILITY CHART
• 8.2 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF
• OVERERHANGS PERFORMANCE
• 8.3 EXAMPLES
• 8.4 GREEN SHADING SYSTEM
• 8.5COMPARISON CHART

• 9.0 PRECIPITATION
• 9.1 SHADING DEVICE PERFORMANCE
• 9.2 SCENARIOS WHERE SHADING
• DEVICE NEEDED IN PRECIPITATION

230113
230123
230127
230134
230138
Tropical Climates and the Critical Role of
Shading Devices
Tropical climates, characterized by high temperatures and intense solar radiation, present unique
challenges for building design and energy efficiency. Shading devices become essential tools in
mitigating these challenges and creating comfortable, energy-efficient structures

Characteristics of Tropical Climates

High Temperatures: Usually above 30°C (86°F) for most of the year.
High Solar Radiation: Intense sunlight with a high angle of incidence.
High Humidity: Adds to the discomfort index.
Heavy Rainfall: In many tropical areas, heavy seasonal rainfall is common.

The most commonly used shading devices in tropical climates are fixed exterior devices like
awnings, canopies, and shutters. These devices are most effective at reducing solar radiation
because they dissipate absorbed heat outside the building

Shading Device 98
Shading Device
A shading device is a component of a window and facade that protects space from direct
sunlight, over heating, glare and provides increased day light, privacy or view to the outside.
Shading devices are low-maintenance elements placed inside or outside the building envelope
to block the unwanted glare and heat in the building's indoor space

Fig 1: Seasional path of the sun and the cast of shadows

Shading Device Impacts

Shading Device 99
Solar Shading
When sunlight hits a pane of glass, it splits into three components

Reflected: no effect on heating.

Absorbed: glass heats up which would transfer heat by conduction and also emits heat (and)
Transmitted: Heat up surface behind it.

The proportion between the three

components is determined by the
angle of incidence' and
by the type of glazing. For most types of glazing,
the transmitted component is very small
if the angle of incidence is larger than 45°
from the normal to the glazing

Shading Device 100

The Sun’s Position
To control heat gain and provide adequate shading, it is important to have a good understanding
of solar geometry, solar radiation and solar energy in various hours of the day and during
different seasons. This is essential in order to: design for passive heating and cooling; orient
buildings properly; understand seasonal changes within the building and its surroundings and
design shading devices.

Solar Geometry
The earth’s movement around the sun results to different solar paths characterised by variable
heights and lengths depending on the time of the year and latitude. The sun’s apparent
movement is from the east to west. Its position at different times of the year can be found
though two angular coordinates namely (Figure 1):
• Solar altitude β, represented by the angle between the line joining the centre of the sun with
the observation point and the horizontal plane
•Solar azimuth α, which is the angle, measured on the horizontal plane, from the south-pointing
coordinate axis to the projection of above joining line.

Fig 2: Angular coordinates of the sun

Sun Path Diagrams

Sun path diagrams are a convenient way of representing the sun’s changing position in the sky
throughout the year. They are projected onto a horizontal plane, on which the four cardinal points
(North, South, West and East) are represented. The plane has a base with concentric circles and
radial lines (Figure 2). The position of the sun at any time of the day can be plotted on the
horizontal plane. Itis therefore possible to develop specific diagram for any latitude.
The values of solar altitude β are represented by the circumferences (outermost corresponds to
β = 0°, horizon, while the centre corresponds to β = 90°, zenith). The values of solar azimuth α are
indicated by the radial lines, and can be read out as the angular distance from the south-pointing
coordinate axis.

Shading Device 101

Fig 3: Polar sun path diagram at the equator

(a) Sun Path direction of Summer (April)

(b) Sun Path direction of Rainy Season (July)

c) Sun Path direction of Winter (December)

Fig 4:. Sun path of three seasons
Shading Device 102
Solar Altitude Angle (γ=Gama):
The vertical angle at the point of observation between the horizon plane and the line connecting
the sun with the observer .

This is also known as Vertical Component of the Angle of Incident.

Solar Azimuth Angle (α=Alfa):

The angle at the point of observation measured on a horizontal plane between the northerly
direction and a point on the horizon circle, where it is interested by the arc of a vertical circle,
going through the zenith and the sun’s position.

Thus…
North α = 0° or 360°
East α = 90°
South α = 180°
West α = 270°

Shading Device 103

For calculating,

Solar Altitude Angles

Solar Azimuth Angles
Of different context and time,

[Link]

[Link]

Shading Device 104

Sun Shade design for building located at Khulna

South west 12 pm 3 pm 5 pm

Azimuth 173.910 -112.410 -96.570

Altitude 67.440 42.880 16.140

HSA HAS=Azi -
Orientation of
building
VSA VSA = arctan
[tan(altitude) /
cos(HSA)

Sun Shade design for building located at Sylhet.

South west 12 pm 3 pm 5 pm

0 0 0
Azimuth 177.01 -112.46 -96.12

Altitude 65.420 40.110 13.800

HSA HAS=Azi -
Orientation of
building
VSA VSA = arctan
[tan(altitude) /
cos(HSA)

Shading Device 105

Sun Shade design for building located at Chittaggong.

South west 12 pm 3 pm 5 pm

Azimuth -176.920 -110.750 -95.610

Altitude 67.630 40.980 14.090

HSA HAS=Azi -
Orientation of
building
VSA VSA = arctan
[tan(altitude) /
cos(HSA)

Sun Shade design for building located at Rajshahi.

South west 12 pm 3 pm 5 pm

0 0 0
Azimuth 177.00 -113.31 -97.22

Altitude 65.490 41.170 16.040

HSA HAS=Azi -
Orientation of
building
VSA VSA = arctan
[tan(altitude) /
cos(HSA)

Shading Device 106

Wall Azimuth Angle: The angle at the point of
observation measured on a horizontal plane between the
northerly direction and a perpendicular line drawn
from the wall’s position.

Thus…

North wall = 0° or 360°

East wall = 90°

South wall = 180°

West wall = 270°

Angle of Incidence (β=Beta):

The 3-demensional angle at the point of observation between the perpendicular of the wall and
the line connecting the sun with the observer.

It can be found by the spherical cosine equation:

cos β = cos δ x cos γ

Angle of incidence (β, Beta) will be required both for selecting the appropriate solar gain factor in
heat gain calculations through windows and for calculating the incident radiation on an opaque
surface, e.g. when the sol-air temperature is to be
established.
So,
cos β = cosδ (azimuth difference) × cos γ (altitude)
In our example:
cos β = cos 31°× cos 40°
cos β = 0.8572 × 0.7660
cos β = 0.6566
β = 49°

Shading Device 107

Shading Design
When attempting to shade a window two important shadow angles must be considered. These are
the horizontal shadow angle (HSA) and vertical shadow angle (VSA). These angles express the
sun’s position in relation to a building façade at a given orientation and can be used to show the
performance of a given shading device based on the shade it produces.

Horizontal shadow angle Or Azimuth Difference (δ =Delta):

The difference between the Solar Azimuth angle and the Wall Azimuth angle.
This angle is also called Horizontal component of the angle of incidence
The horizontal shadow angle (HSA) describes the performance of a vertical shading devices. It is the
difference in azimuth between the sun’s position and the orientation of the building façade under
consideration (Figure 7). It can be calculated using the following equation:

HSA = AZI - ORI

Vertical shadow angle (ε=epsilon)

The Vertical Shadow Angle (VSA) is the angle between the horizontal planeand the sun's rays
projected onto avertical surface, like a wall.
The vertical shadow angle (VSA) is required for (or cast by) horizontal shading devices. It is the
angle between a horizontal plane of the building façade under consideration and a tilted plane
which contains the sun or the edge of the shading device (Figure 8). The following equation can be
used to calculate VSA

tan ε = tan γ x sec δ

Shading Device 108

Shade Dimensions
These two angles, HSA and VSA, can then be used to determine the size of the shading
device required for a window. The depth of the overhang, its width (additional projection
from the side of the window (Figure 9)) and the fins can be determined using the following
equations:

Overhang Depth= Height/ tan(VSA)

Fin Depth= Width/ tan(HSA)

Width= Depth/ tan(HSA)

Shading Device 109

What should be effective projection infront of wall which is facing
south-west in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Full coverage is to be obtain at
2:00 pm on 22 June. Window size is 1.7x 1.4m .

Solution: Solar altitude( 𝛾) : 62.46 ⁰

Solar azimuth(α) : 274.54⁰
Wall azimuth (w) : 225 ⁰

Horizontal shadow angle( δ) = α-w

= 274.54⁰ - 225⁰
= 50.54⁰

Cos β = Cos 𝛾. Cos δ

= Cos(62.46⁰). Cos(50.54⁰)
Incident angle, β = 72.9⁰ Top view

Tan E = Tan𝛾 . Sec δ

= Tan(62.46⁰) . Sec(50.54⁰)
Vertical shadow angle, E = 71.66⁰

For horizontal shading,

From fig:01 ,
Projection lvl = 1.7

Tan(71.66 ⁰) = 1.7 / 𝑋
x = 0.56m

Fig 1
Hence, 0.56m horizontal shading device needed.

For vertical shading,

From fig:02 ,
Tan(50.54 ⁰) = 1.4/ 𝑦
y = 1.15m

Fig 2

Hence, 1.15m vertical shading device needed

Shading Device 110

Shading Protector
The solar shading protractor (Figure 3) is another useful tool which allows one to study the
effects of sunshades, overhangs and fins on the building façades. It has the same dimensions as
the polar diagram and can be overlaid to it to show the shading effects caused by vertical and
horizontal overhangs, with respect to a specific point of view, which must coincide with the
centre of the chart. This produces the shading mask of the solar shading device.

Figure 5: Solar shading protractor

Figure 6: Stereographic projection

Shading Device 111
Shadow Profile
Using the shadow angle protractor, the 'shading mask' of a given device can be established. For
vertical devices this is the characteristic sector shape, as shown in Figure 6. If this is done on
the same scale as the protractor, on tracing paper, it can be laid over the appropriate solar chart
and
the 'shading times' for the particular device (dates and hours) can be read off directly. This is a
very quick short-cut, obviating the need to establish solar position angles.

Horizontal devices may be canopies, horizontal louvre blades or externally applied Venetian
blinds. Their performance will be measured by a vertical shadow angle (ε). The shading mask
is of a segmental shape as shown in Figure 61. These will be most effective when the sun is
opposite to the building face considered and at a high angle, such as for north and south facing
walls. To exclude a low angle sun, this type of device would have to cover the window
completely, permitting a view downwards only.

Figure 7: Vertical shading devices

Figure 8: Horizontal shading devices

Shading Device 112

Egg-crate devices are combinations of horizontal and vertical elements (Figure 9). The
many types of grille-blocks and decorative screens may fall into this category. Figure 10
shows the method of constructing the shading mask for a moderately complex shape.
These can be effective or any orientation depending on detail dimensions.

Figure 9: Egg crate shading devices

Fig 10:Construction of a shading mask

When a building elevation is considered from the point of view of shading, it will be
represented (in plan) by a line crossing the centre point of the solar char.t

Shading Device 113

 Fig 11; Fitting a shading mask

Any part of the the overheated period behind this line can be ignored: when the sun is in these
positions, it will not strike the elevation considered. The design of a suitable shading device is
basically the finding of a shading mask which overlaps the overheated period with as close a fit as
possible. Many combinations of vertical and horizontal shadow angles may achieve the same
purpose. Minor compromises may be acceptable, i.e. for short periods the sun may be permitted to
enter, if this results in substantial economies (Figure 11).

Shading Device 114

At 2 pm,

At 4 pm,

Shading Device 115

At 5 pm,

Shading Device 116

Shading Device Options
Several methods can be used to design sun shading devices. They can vary in size without
changing their shading characteristics, as long as the ratio of the depth to the spacing of the
elements or height of the window to be shaded (projection factor) or the cut-off angles (VSA
and HSA) remain constant. Examples of multiple design options with similar shading
performance for latitude 6 S.
North and South facing windows can be shaded using horizontal shading devices. Various
configurations can be used as long as the cut-off angles remains unchanged. For this
orientations, vertical fins in addition to the overhangs will provide complete shading from east
and west as the sun rises and sets respectively

North facing windows (VSA - 47° and HSA - 57°) Axonometric view of the shading device

Shading Device 117

North North West facing South South East facing Axonometric view of the
windows (VSA - 35° and HSA - 36°) windows (VSA - 48° and HSA - 43°) shading device

East facing windows West facing windows Axonometric view of the

(VSA - 36° and HSA - 33°) (VSA - 34° and HSA - 32°) shading device

Shading Device 118

East and West facing orientations have low cut-off angles for shading which may result
to deep single overhangs and fins that may not be practical to build. More practical
solutions suitable for these orientations include multiple louvers (while maintaining the
same cut-off angle) or use of egg-crate devices.

Shading Device 119

Types of Shading Device

External Shading Device fig: for Internal case

Fig 12: for External case

Shading Device 120

 Fig. 13. Solar shading systems for buildings

External shading devices are architectural elements installed outside a building

to control the amount of sunlight entering indoor spaces. These devices play a
vital role in reducing heat gain, preventing glare, and enhancing energy
efficiency.

1. Fixed Shading Devices

a. Horizontal Overhangs:
• Commonly used on south-facing facades in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Block high-angle summer sun while allowing low-angle winter sun to enter.
• Example: Roof overhangs, cantilevered slabs, or concrete fins.

Shading Device 121

b. Vertical Fins:
• Effective on east- and west-facing facades, where the sun is at a low angle during mornings
and evenings
• .Positioned vertically to block direct sunlight while maintaining views.

c. Egg-Crate Shading
• Combines horizontal overhangs and vertical fins for a grid-like shading system.
• Useful for facades exposed to sunlight from multiple angles.

2. Adjustable or Operable Shading Devices

These devices can be modified based on the time of day, season, or user preference for better
sunlight control.

a. Louvers
• Horizontal or vertical slats that can be fixed or adjustable.
• Made from materials like aluminum, wood, or composite materials.
• Adjustable louvers allow flexibility in shading and ventilation

Shading Device 122

b. External Blinds
• Retractable systems often made from fabric, aluminum, or wood.
• Can be manually or automatically controlled.
• Effective for large glazed facades to manage solar gain.

Internal Shading Device

Internal shading devices are installed inside a building to control sunlight, reduce glare,
and enhance comfort. While not as effective as external shading devices in blocking heat
gain, internal devices are easier to maintain, adjust, and often contribute to the aesthetic
of interior spaces

Shading Device 123

Shading Device Types Usability Chart

Fig 14: Temperature change curve

Shading Device 124

Parametric Analysis of Overhangs Performance
To quantify the influence of the window dimensions on the performance of a finite overhang, a
series of simulations were performed for rectangular windows characterized by different ratio
of its width (W) to its height (H). As it was easily predictable, the results show an increasing
influence of this parameter with the grown of the apparent solar azimuth angle, while it’s
insignificant with the sun positioned directly in front of the window (Figure 15 and 16 ). It is
also evident that overhangs have a better performance if applied to a window having the
horizontal dimension much bigger than the vertical one

Fig 15: Shading Factor for finite overhangs of different width exposed to South :

Figure 16: Shading Factor for finite overhangs of different width exposed to East.

Shading Device 125

For East orientation, Figure 17 puts in evidence the poor performance of the horizontal
overhang, that is near useless when the sun is low on the horizon. For windows exposed to
East, this condition occurs early in the morning, when higher is the value of the solar
energy incident on the window. Shading effectiveness of an overhang becomes significant
only late in the morning when solar irradiance is already decreased. The performance of
finite and infinite width systems, in this case, is very similar. The differences become
significant late in the morning, with the sun moving to South.

Figure 17: Shading Factor for finite and infinite overhangs of different depth exposed to East

Shading Device 126

Examples
Horizontal Shading Devices
This shading device is suitable for North and South
facing façades to cut out high angle sun.
the image, bamboo or similar
lightweight natural materials are used,
which is suitable for tropical or rural
architecture.

They block direct sunlight during specific

times of the day, typically when the sun is
at a higher angle

The structure has horizontal shading fins that

help block high-angle sunlight, particularly from
midday sun in tropical or hot climates.

These shading devices are a part of passive

design strategies aimed at controlling sunlight,
reducing heat gain, and improving energy
efficiency within a building.

the concrete shading elements above

the windows act as fixed overhangs,
reducing the intensity of direct sunlight
entering the building.

These horizontal shading device bands are

positioned to block sunlight at specific
angles

Shading Device 127

Vertical Shading Devices
Slanted vertical fins are most effective on east and
west exposures.

Vertical fins are oriented vertically and

typically spaced apart at regular intervals.

Common in tropical climates where sunlight

angles and intensity vary significantly.

Found in institutional buildings, commercial

complexes, and modern residences.

They can be straight, angled, or curved, depending

on the desired shading and aesthetic outcome.

Shading Device 128

Egg Crate Shading
Devices
This shading device is most effective on the east
and west exposures.

Eggcrate shading devices offer a practical and

visually appealing solution for improving building
performance in terms of both energy efficiency
and comfort.

Shading Device 129

Green Shading System
Shading devices using vegetation, often referred to as green shading systems, are an eco-friendly
and aesthetically pleasing way to reduce heat gain, control sunlight, and improve thermal comfort
in buildings.

TYPES OF VEGETATION AS SHADING DEVICE

• Green Walls (Living Walls or Vertical Gardens)Walls covered with plants grown in a soil or
hydroponic system.
• Provide shading by reducing direct solar exposure on the building facade.
• Help in insulating the building and reducing indoor temperatures.

• A trellis or framework is attached to the building's west-facing wall, supporting climbing plants.
• These plants create a green screen that intercepts sunlight, providing natural shading.

Shading Device 130

Planting Trees as Shading Device
Planting trees is one of the most effective and natural ways to provide shading for buildings and
outdoor spaces. Trees act as living shading devices, reducing heat gain, glare, and the urban heat
island effect while enhancing the aesthetics and environmental quality of an area.

Deciduous Trees (Seasonal Shade)

• In summer, deciduous trees provide shade with their dense foliage, blocking sunlight and
reducing heat gain.
• In winter, these trees shed their leaves, allowing sunlight to penetrate and naturally warm
the building.
• Ideal Placement: On south-facing walls to maximize seasonal shading.

Evergreen Trees:
Pine, Cypress, Neem, Mango Best for tropical and year-round shading.

Shading Device 131

Comparison Chart
Characteristics Horizontal Shading Vertical Egg Crate Vegetative Shading
Shading Shading

Solar Radiation Reduction 50-70% 40-60% 60-75% 30-50%

Airflow Effectiveness Moderate High Low High

Best building orientation South/North facades East/West facades All facades, All-orientations
specially east and
west

Cost Low-medium Medium High Low-medium

Maintenance Low Low Medium High

Aesthetic Flexibility Moderate High Very high Organic/

Dynamic

Thermal Perfomance Good Good Excellent Very good

Additional Benefits Effective for blocking Effective for Maximum diffusion Enviromental cooling
high sun angles, Simple blocking low sun
Installation angles , Enhances
Privacy

Indoor Temperature 1.29 1.10 0.98-2.11 Varies

reduction (°C)

Shading Device 132

Precipitation
Shading devices, while primarily designed to control sunlight and heat gain, can also play a role
in managing precipitation.

Placed in depth to control rain management

Shading devices are essential in areas with significant precipitation for several reason

(1) Shading devices performance on summer

It is found that in summer, among the three types of shading devices, box-type and Wind-Catcher
shading devices offer only a slight difference in magnitude of shading area on the facade of the
wall. In summer, the target area has high solar radiation intensity, and enough sun penetration
coverage is necessary for windows. The study window surface area is 0.96 m2, and it is found that
except for overhang shading devices, the rest offer enough shading in the afternoon. The shading
Magnitude ratio is formulated to be seen as the result of the shading area falling on the window
surface area. The nearer the ratio, 1 means full shading of the window.

The shading magnitude ratio is resulted by dividing the shading area on the window surface area
by the window surface area. According to the graph in Figure 18, the mid-day time, the amount of
shading area by the Wind-Catcher is a little bit higher than others, meaning the coverage on the
window surface gave almost enough shading. It can be found that all three types of shading
device in summer reaches the shading ratio nearer 1, which happen when the sun is at its highest
position during the afternoon time. Generally, analysis shows that the performance of the Box-
type shading device and Wind-Catcher shading device has only slightly different conditions for
thewhole day. However, the Wind-Catcher shading device gives stable shading magnitude for
almost the day.

Shading Device 133

Fig 18. Comparison of shading magnitude ratio of three types of shading device (summer)

(2) Shading devices performance in rainy season

Figure 19 shows that in the morning period from 9 am-noon, the shading ratio of the three shading
devices has the same pace at different distances. Among them, the Wind-Catcher shading device
rises to ratio one, giving full shading in the afternoon. In the rainy season, the performance of the
Wind Catcher shading device shows its potential in comparison with other types. However, the
intensity of sunlight during the daytime of the rainy season is not as high as in summer. Though
the rainy season, on some sunny days, the shading of the window should emphasize having
enough shading in critical daytime. In all aspects, Wind-Catcher Shading Device offers the most
enough shading for the whole day.

Fig 19. Comparison of shading magnitude ratio of three types of shading device (rainy season)

Shading Device 134

Scenarios Where Shading Devices Are Needed in Precipitation

[Link] Precipitation Intensity Management(Q)

𝑄=𝐼⋅𝐴

𝑄: Precipitation Intensity flow rate (L/s).

𝐼: Rainfall intensity (L/s/m²).
𝐴: Surface area of the shading device (m²).

[Link] Wind-Driven Rain (WDR)

Impact

Wind-driven rain can be a major factor in determining the

need for shading. The formula for WDR intensity is:

•W=R⋅V⋅cos⁡
(θ)

W: Wind-driven rain intensity (mm/h or L/m²h).

R: Horizontal rainfall intensity (mm/h). Fig 20 : Influence of overhangs and pitched
roofs on wind and rain flow.
V: Wind speed (m/s).
θ: Angle between the wind direction and the building
facade (degrees)

[Link] Overhang Depth for Rain Protection

The depth of the overhang or shading device can be
determined using the following relationship:
•D=H⋅tan⁡ (α)
•D: Required overhang depth.
H: Height of the window or opening.
α: Effective angle of rain impact (derived from wind-
driven rain direction and precipitation angle).

If,
High Wind-Driven Rain (𝑊>ThresholdW): Install shading to protect
walls/windows
High Precipitation Intensity (𝑄>Drainage Capacity): Ensure shading Fig 21: Principles of rain
device includes rainwater management. deflection.

Shading Device 135

Building Material
All material in nature, the mountains and the streams and the air and we,
are made of Light which has been spent, and this crumpled mass called
material casts a shadow, and the shadow belongs to Light.

Properties of Material - Louis I Kahn

• Thermal Mass
• Periodic Heat
• Time Lag
• Insulation
• Hygrothermal Performance
Building Material
• Timber
• Mud
• Brick
• RCC
Material Application
• Roof
• Façade
• Floor
• Shading and Insulation

230108
230111
230112
230131
220114
Building Material in Tropical
Climate
In tropical climate, the selection of building materials is crucial for creating a comfortable and
energy-efficient environment. The materials must respond effectively to the unique challenges of
heat, humidity, and moisture, all while minimizing the need for mechanical cooling. Thoughtful
integration of the right materials can significantly enhance the building’s performance, ensuring
durability and sustainability.

Key considerations in this process include- Thermal Mass, Insulation, and

Condensation.

Thermal Mass
Introduction to Thermal Mass
Thermal mass refers to a material's ability to absorb, store, and release heat, influencing
indoor temperature regulation. In tropical climates, with high temperatures, intense humidity,
and seasonal variations, thermal mass plays a crucial role in keeping buildings cool during the day
and comfortable at night. Thermal mass, when paired with effective passive design strategies, can
reduce energy consumption, enhance thermal comfort, and promote sustainability in building
design.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

136
Thermal Properties of Materials

Material Characteristics:
• Density
• Specific heat capacity
• Thermal conductivity

Performance in Tropical Climate:

• How each material behaves in high heat and humidity.
• Suitability for rural and urban areas in tropical climate.

Traditional and Modern Applications:

• Traditionally used materials like brick, stone, adobe, rammed earth
• Contemporary materials concrete, hollow blocks.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

137
Table: Materials in Tropical Climate

Material Specific Thermal Density Effectiveness

Hea Conductivity
t Capacity
Water 4200 0.60 1000 High

Stone 1000 1.8 2300 High

Brick 800 0.73 1700 High

Concrete 1000 1.13 2000 High

Unfired Clay 1000 0.21 700 High

Bricks

Dense Concrete 1000 1.63 2300 High

Block

Gypsum Plaster 1000 0.5 1300 High

Air Crete Block 1000 0.15 600 Medium

Steel 480 45 7800 Low

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

138
Timber 1200 0.14 650 Low

Mineral Fiber 1000 0.035 25 Low

Insulation

Figure: Specifications of Materials

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

139
Benefits of High Thermal Mass Materials in Tropical Climate

• Temperature Regulation:
High thermal mass materials (e.g., mud, brick) absorb daytime heat and release it at night, ensuring
cooler indoor temperatures, particularly beneficial during Tropical’s hot summers.

• Reduced Energy Use:

High thermal mass minimizes reliance on air conditioning, reducing energy consumption and costs
in urban areas.

• Sustainability:
Traditional materials like mud and clay are ecofriendly, locally sourced, and biodegradable,
supporting sustainable construction in rural Bangladesh.

• Moisture Regulation:
Materials with moderate thermal mass like bricks resist high humidity better than lightweight
materials.

Challenges of Using Thermal Mass in Tropical Climate

• High Heat Retention:

Without proper ventilation, materials like brick and concrete can retain excessive heat, especially
in densely built urban areas.

• Durability in Monsoons:
Materials like mud or untreated bricks can erode or weaken during prolonged rainy seasons.

• Weight and Structural Challenges:

Heavy materials like concrete require strong foundations, increasing construction costs.

• Modern Material Tradeoffs:

While concrete has high thermal mass, it is less sustainable and contributes to urban heat islands.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

140
 Figure: Comparison of Properties in Tropical Climate

Comparative Analysis of Materials in Bangladesh

A brief analysis of how commonly used materials perform under tropical conditions:
Brick:
Widely used for its balance of durability and thermal mass but needs shading and ventilation for
maximum efficiency.

Mud:
Ideal for rural homes, providing excellent thermal comfort but requires frequent maintenance.

Concrete:
Popular in urban Bangladesh but prone to overheating without passive cooling strategies.

Timber and Thatch:

Provide low thermal mass but are effective when used as roofing or combined with high thermal
mass walls.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

141
Design Considerations for Tropical Climates

Passive Cooling:
Pair high thermal mass materials with cross-ventilation to dissipate stored heat during the night.

Shading:
Use overhangs, verandas, and trees to protect high thermal mass walls from direct sunlight.

Waterproofing:
Treat mud and brick surfaces with lime or plaster to enhance durability in the monsoon season.

Material Combinations:
Combine high thermal mass walls (brick, concrete) with lightweight materials (timber, thatch) for
roofs to achieve thermal balance.

Effective thickness:
Considering thermal mass on a daily cycle basis, the most effective depth of the material is the
first 50 mm. Between 50 and 100 mm, efficiency further diminishes and beyond 100 mm the
mass effect is largely inconsequential.

Figure: Graph of Effective Thickness of Materials

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

142
Periodic Heat Flow & Thermal mass
Diurnal temperature variations cause periodic heat flow in buildings, with heat entering during the
day and reversing at night due to temperature differences between outdoor and indoor
environments. The thermal response of walls introduces a time lag (phase shift) in temperature
changes and reduces the amplitude of indoor temperature fluctuations relative to outdoor
temperatures, characterized by the decrement factor. These factors influence heat storage and
dissipation, moderating indoor temperature variations for improved comfort. The periodic heat
flow rate:
Q = A × U × [(Tm – Ti ) + μ(Tϕ – Tm)

Figure: Diurnal Temperature Variations and Thermal Behavior of a Wall

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

143
Periodic heat flow is the repetitive movement of heat into and out of a building due to
temperature changes over the course of a day or year.

Figure: Graph of Time Lag

Time lag in heat flow refers to the delay in time between a change in external temperature
and the corresponding change in temperature at a deeper layer.

Figure: Graph of Time Lag Vs Thickness

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

144
Insulation
"Insulation" refers to the process of reducing heat transfer between objects by creating a
barrier that hinders the flow of thermal energy, typically by minimizing conduction,
convection, and radiation between them. Insulation of building material refers to its ability to
reduce heat transfer, maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures and improving energy
efficiency. In tropical regions, building materials with good insulation properties help reduce heat
transfer, maintaining cooler indoor temperatures and improving energy efficiency.

Insulation Quality of Materials

Bamboo:
Bamboo can moderate indoor temperatures by
reducing heat gain during the day and slowing heat
loss at night.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

145
Wood:
The insulating properties of wood depends on its type, density,
moisture content, and thickness.

Mud:

Glass:
Insulates against temperature
differences of 20–30°C (36–
54°F) or more, depending on the
conditions.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

146
Concrete:
Concrete provides moderate thermal insulation in
tropical regions by absorbing and storing heat during the
day and releasing it slowly at night, which helps
regulate indoor temperatures.

Brick:
Bricks stabilize indoor temperatures by
absorbing heat during the day and releasing it
at night, making them durable, cost-effective,
and naturally insulating. However, they can
retain excessive heat, causing discomfort in
poorly ventilated spaces, and may not block
high temperatures effectively without proper
insulation.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

147
Different materials interact with thermal mass and periodic heat
flow.

Figure: Graph of Thermal Mass and Periodic Heat Flow

High Thermal Mass Materials
Examples: Concrete, Brick, Stone

How They Work:

• Absorb and store large amounts of heat during the day.
• Release heat slowly at night due to their high heat capacity and thermal lag.
• Provide a time-shift in heat flow, moderating indoor temperature fluctuations.

Effect on Tropical Climate:

• Stabilizes indoor temperatures, reducing daytime overheating.
• If not paired with proper ventilation, they may release stored heat at night when
cooling is needed, leading to discomfort.

Use Case:
• Suitable for walls and floors if combined with shading, reflective coatings, or natural
ventilation.

Low Thermal Mass Materials

Examples: Timber, Thin Metal Sheets

How They Work:

• Heat up and cool down quickly due to low heat storage capacity.
• Transmit heat almost instantly without significant thermal lag.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

148
Effect on Tropical Climate:
• Can cause rapid indoor temperature changes, making spaces uncomfortable during
the day.
• Require insulation or reflective layers to mitigate heat gain.

Use Case:
• Ideal for lightweight construction where insulation or ventilation systems are integrated.

Insulating Materials
Examples: Polystyrene, Fiberglass, Mineral Wool

How They Work:

• Slow down heat transfer by providing resistance to heat flow.
• Do not store heat but act as barriers to incoming solar heat.

Effect on Tropical Climate:

• Keep indoor spaces cooler by reducing heat gain during the day and maintaining
nighttime cooling.
• Highly effective when paired with low thermal mass materials.

Use Case:
• Best for roofs and walls exposed to direct sunlight.

Reflective Materials
Examples: Aluminum Foil, Cool Roof Paints, Reflective Glass

How They Work:

• Reflect solar radiation, reducing the amount of heat absorbed by the building envelope.
• Minimize the impact of periodic heat flow.

Effect on Tropical Climate:

• Significantly reduce daytime heat gain, especially for roofs and exposed surfaces.
• Complement other materials by preventing heat build-up.

Use Case:
• Roofs, external walls, and windows in combination with insulation.

In traditional tropical architecture such as in Bangladesh, materials like mud, clay brick, bamboo,
and thatched roofing leverage thermal mass to regulate indoor temperatures, absorbing heat during
the day and releasing it at night. This passive thermal regulation is further enhanced by the periodic
heat flow, where the materials’ ability to store and release heat counters daily temperature
fluctuations, ensuring a consistent indoor climate. Bamboo’s lighter thermal mass aids in natural
cooling by allowing airflow, while thatched roofs provide effective insulation against heat transfer.
Traditional design elements, such as large windows and shading, work in tandem with these
materials to optimize energy efficiency and reduce reliance on active heating and cooling systems.

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

149
Hygrothermal Performance
Introduction to Hygrothermal Performance
Tropical regions are characterized by high temperatures, elevated levels of humidity, and
frequent rainfall. These climatic conditions present unique challenges for building materials,
particularly in terms of managing moisture and heat. Hygrothermal performance refers to the
ability of building materials to handle the combined effects of heat and moisture, ensuring
durability, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort.

Key Factors Influencing Hygrothermal Performance

Moisture Management:
Tropical climates experience high levels of humidity and
rainfall, which can lead to condensation, water increase, and
mold growth if not managed properly.
Building materials must have low moisture absorption rates or
be treated to resist water penetration.

Ventilation and Breathability:

Breathable materials allow for the passage of water vapor,
reducing the risk of condensation and promoting healthy indoor
air quality.
Proper ventilation, combined with breathable materials,
mitigates the accumulation of humidity inside buildings.

Mold and Mildew Growth:

The combination of warmth and moisture creates an ideal
environment for mold growth, which can damage materials and
pose health risks.

Material Degradation:
Prolonged exposure to moisture can lead to warping, swelling, and reduced lifespan of materials
like wood and concrete.

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150
Challenges Regarding Hygrothermal Performance in Tropical
Climate
Condensation:
The high difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures can cause
condensation on surfaces, particularly if materials with poor thermal performance
are used.

Strategies for Optimizing Hygrothermal Performance

Material Selection:
Use moisture-resistant materials, such as treated wood, fiber cement boards,
and composites.
Select materials with high thermal reflectivity, such as light-colored roofing
and exterior finishes, to reduce heat absorption.

Surface Treatments:
Apply water-repellent coatings or sealants to reduce water ingress.
Use anti-fungal and anti-microbial treatments to prevent mold growth.

Table: Aspects Regarding Material Selection

Aspect Insulation Thermal Mass

Definition Materials that resist the flow of Materials that absorb, store, and
heat, reducing heat transfer release heat slowly

Purpose To prevent heat transfer into or To regulate indoor temperatures by

out of a building absorbing heat during the day and
releasing it at night

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151
 Material Fiberglass, foam boards, thatch Brick, concrete, stone, mud, adobe
Examples

Function Blocks heat gain or loss, acting as Moderates temperature fluctuations

barrier by storing heat

Best Works in the environment with Works in climates with daily

Performance extreme temperature differences temperature fluctuations (e.g.
(e.g., cold climates) tropical or desert climates)

When to Use Insulation and Thermal Mass

Insulation
When to Use:
In climates where the goal is to block extreme heat or cold from entering or leaving the building.
In hot and humid tropical areas like Bangladesh, insulation is crucial for roofs to prevent
overheating from intense sunlight.
Advantages:
Reduces energy consumption for heating and cooling.
Maintains consistent indoor temperatures.
Lightweight and easy to install.
Disadvantages:
Does not regulate temperature over time; only acts as a barrier.
Ineffective for passive heating or cooling in climates with large temperature swings.

Thermal Mass
When to Use:
In climates with high daytime temperatures and cooler nights, such as tropical regions with daily
temperature fluctuations.
Ideal for buildings designed with passive cooling and ventilation strategies.
Suitable for walls and floors in areas with direct exposure to sunlight.
Advantages:
Reduces temperature swings inside the building.
Provides passive heating and cooling, lowering energy usage.
Durable and long-lasting.
Disadvantages:
Requires proper design (e.g., shading and ventilation) to avoid overheating.
Heavier and more labor-intensive to construct.

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152
When to Use Both Together
Using insulation and thermal mass together is ideal for climates like Bangladesh, where
daytime temperatures are high, and nights can be cooler, depending on the season.

Scenario for Combined Use

Roof:
Insulation can block direct heat from entering the building, while thermal mass in walls or floors
can store and regulate heat indoors.
Ventilated Designs:
Thermal mass materials absorb heat during the day but require insulation in specific areas (e.g.,
roofs or shaded walls) to enhance comfort.
Energy Efficiency:
Combining both reduces the reliance on active cooling systems, ensuring year-round comfort.
Advantages of Combined Use
Enhances energy efficiency by blocking heat flow and stabilizing indoor temperatures.
Reduces overheating in summer and maintains warmth in cooler months.
Ideal for passive building designs.

Disadvantages of Combined Use

Can be costly if not planned effectively.
Requires careful architectural design to balance insulation and thermal mass placement.

Figure: Graph comparing the effectiveness of using insulation alone, thermal mass alone, and a
combination of both across various performance categories

Building Materials in Tropical Climate

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Material Types
In Tropical Climates, two distinct types of materials can be found, such as-
• Vernacular- Bamboo, Mud, Wood, Thatch, Timber
• Contemporary- RCC, Brick, Glass

Vernacular building materials in Bangladeshi Context

Bangladesh is located in the tropical monsoon zone, and its climate can be distinguished by high
temperatures, heavy rainfall, typically excessive humidity, and significant seasonal changes.
Figure 1 shows the climatic condition of Bangladesh including monthly average temperature.

From a climatic perspective, Bangladesh has three different seasons: the cold dry season
(November through February), the hot pre-monsoon season (March through May), and the rainy
monsoon season (June through October). Because of the seasonal variation and geographical
location, different kinds of materials and construction techniques are available in different
regions of Bangladesh. That is why four different locations were selected for the variation of
climatic region. Rajshahi, Mymensingh, Sylhet, and Khulna are four old, inhabited areas in
Bangladesh. Also enriched with their own history, culture, and indigenous way of life.

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Figure: Commonly Used Vernacular Materials in Bangladesh

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155
 Figure: Thermal Conductivity of the Materials

Figure-Thermal performance and durability comparison among materials

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Summary of The Information on Vernacular Materials

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157
Summary of The Information on Vernacular Materials

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Building Materials in Tropical Climate
159
Building Materials in Tropical Climate
160
Timber
Thermal Performance
Natural Insulator: Timber has low thermal conductivity, which helps regulate indoor
temperatures by reducing heat transfer.
It provides thermal comfort by keeping interiors cooler during the day and warmer at night.

Local Availability
Abundant Supply: Tropical regions often have a rich variety of timber species, making it a locally
available and renewable resource.
Economic Viability: Using locally sourced timber reduces transportation costs and supports local
economies.

High Strength-to-Weight Ratio

Timber is strong yet lightweight, making it easy to transport and assemble, especially in remote
areas.
Its structural efficiency allows for the construction of durable and resilient buildings with minimal
foundation requirements.

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 Aesthetic Appeal
Timber has a natural beauty that blends well with the
tropical environment, giving buildings a warm and organic
feel.
Its texture, grain, and variety of colors offer aesthetic
flexibility for both traditional and modern designs.

Adaptability to Humid Conditions

Certain tropical timber species, such as teak, mahogany,
and rosewood, are naturally resistant to moisture and
decay.
Properly treated timber can withstand high humidity and
frequent rainfall without warping or rotting.

Flexibility and Workability

Timber is easy to cut, shape, and join, which simplifies the construction process.
It allows for intricate detailing, making it suitable for traditional craftsmanship as well as modern
techniques.

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 Earthquake and Cyclone Resilience
Timber structures are flexible and can absorb shocks from earthquakes and strong winds, common
in some tropical regions.
When designed properly, timber buildings can resist structural failure during cyclones.

Versatility in Design
Timber can be used for various components:
Structure: Frames, beams, columns, and trusses.
Cladding: Exterior facades and interior paneling.

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 Roofing: Lightweight and thermally efficient roof structures.

Sustainability
Timber is a renewable resource if sourced from responsibly managed forests.
It has a low carbon footprint compared to materials like steel or concrete, as it sequesters carbon
during its growth.
Bamboo, a fast-growing woody grass, is often considered a type of timber and is particularly
sustainable in tropical contexts.

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Mud
Mud is commonly used as a building material in tropical climates due to its natural properties
and suitability for the environmental conditions in these regions.

Properties of Mud
Thermal Mass
Mud or earth materials have high thermal mass, which means they can absorb and store heat
effectively. In tropical regions, where temperatures can vary widely between day and night, this
thermal mass helps to moderate indoor temperatures by absorbing heat during the day and
releasing it slowly at night.

Insulation
While mud is not traditionally considered a good insulator compared to materials like foam or
fiberglass, its thermal mass properties can contribute to a more stable indoor temperature.
However, in Minke's approach, the use of additional techniques like proper design of shading,
orientation, and possibly incorporating insulative additives into the mud mix can enhance its
insulation properties.

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Pros And Cons of Mud

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166
Brick
Bricks are made in a wide range of shapes and suit the requirements of the location where they are
to be used. Special forms of bricks may be needed due to structural consideration or for ornamental
decoration as defined by the architect. Specially molded bricks avoid the cumbersome process of
cutting and rounding the rectangular bricks to the desired shape. Some of the special types of bricks
commonly used are given below.

Bricks can be classified based on their production methods, which influence their strength,
durability, appearance, and overall suitability for different applications.
• Dry pressed brick
• Air dry brick
• Sun dried brick
• Kiln fired the brick.
• Sand lime
• Concrete
• Engineering
• Fly ash

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Bricks can also be classified based on their shapes, which influence applications and usability.
Squint Bricks:
• made in a variety of shapes and are used to the construction of acute
and obtuse squint quoins.

Bull Nosed Bricks:

• used to form rounded quoins.
Perforated Bricks:
• standard size bricks produced with perforations running through their
thickness.
• easy to burn and their light weight makes it possible to cut down the weight
of the structure and effect in foundations.
• aperture of the perforations is such that it gives maximum
amount of ventilation but does not permit the entry of rats or
mice.
• used for constructing load bearing walls of low buildings, panel
walls for multistoried buildings and for providing partition
walls.
•
Hallow Bricks:
• made of clay and are provided with one or more cavities.
• light in weight and are used to increase insulation against heat
and dampness.
• used for the construction of load bearing walls, partition walls or panel walls to
multistoried buildings.

Circular Bricks:
• have internal and external faces curved to meet the
requirement of the curve and radius of the wall.
• used for wells and towers.

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Plinth cornice and String Course Brick:
• molded in several patterns with the object of adding architectural
beauty to the structure and at the same time helping to throw the rack
water off the face of the walls

Coping Bricks:
• manufactured in a variety of shapes to set the thickness of the wall and
are throated on the underside to throw off rainwater.

Paving Bricks:
• specially made for paving the surface of streets and
highways
• usually made from shale, fire clay on a mixture of the
two
• unaffected by weather and ordinary traffic wear
• loaded on the bed of sand which in term rests on
foundation of stone or concrete
• laid by grouting with cement mortar or asphalt.

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Properties of Brick

Pros and Cons of Brick

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RCC
RCC stands for Reinforced Cement Concrete, a composite construction material widely used
for building structures. It combines the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile strength
of steel reinforcement to create a versatile and durable material.

Pros and cons of RCC

Roofing Materials for Tropical Climates

Clay or Terracotta
Naturally insulative,
Superior durability, longevity and breathability.
Dissipate heat and keep interiors cool.

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Metal Roofing (Aluminum or Steel)
Lightweight, durable, and resistant to heavy rains.
Reflective coatings can reduce heat absorption.

Needs insulation or a radiant barrier to mitigate heat transfer

and noise during rain.

Thatch (Palm or Coconut Leaves)

Excellent insulation and natural ventilation. Sustainable and
blends with the environment.
Requires regular maintenance and replacement due to
susceptibility to decay and pests.

Concrete Roof with Insulation

Durable, resistant to heavy rain, and can be coated with
reflective paint or tiles for cooling.
May require insulation to reduce heat retention.

Green Roofs
Provides insulation, reduces heat absorption, and mitigates the
urban heat island effect.
Requires structural reinforcement and proper waterproofing.

Facade Materials for Tropical Climates

Concrete Blocks
Durable and readily available but can retain heat. Use hollow blocks or
insulated concrete for better thermal performance.

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Bamboo
Sustainable, lightweight, and naturally breathable. Often used for walls
or as cladding.

Timber
Locally sourced hardwoods resist decay and termites if treated. They are
lightweight and provide natural aesthetics.

Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB)

Provide thermal mass and are sustainable if locally sourced.

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Flooring Materials for Tropical Climates

Terracotta Tiles
Cool underfoot, durable, and suitable for high humidity.

Natural Stone
Materials like granite or sandstone are durable and remain cool.
underfoot.

Polished Concrete
Cost-effective, low-maintenance, and helps with thermal mass
cooling.

Bamboo Flooring
Sustainable and moisture-resistant when treated properly.

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Shading and Insulation Materials for Tropical Climates

Wooden Louvers
Allow controlled ventilation while providing shade.

Bamboo Screens
Lightweight and versatile for shading and partitions.

Reflective Insulation
Foil-backed insulation reduces heat transfer from the roof and
walls.

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 Landscaping
& Site Features

• Vegetation chart and relation to building

• Building to building gap Urban area
• Adapting Architectural Design to Tropical Terrain: Plain
Land, Slopes, and Water bodies

“Architecture is not about form, it’s about

understanding place, culture, and human needs”
- Tham & Videgård

Jönköping-Västra Kajen
- Tham & Videgård Hansson Arkitekter

230102
220105
220117
220120
220126
Living with Nature: Sustainable
Strategies for Tropical Climate
When we think of the word
"tropic," the image that
typically comes to mind is an
exotic space, characterized by
perpetual warmth and humidity,
with frequent and heavy
rainfall nurturing lush
vegetation. Throughout history,
this tropical climate has been
romanticized as a paradise and
criticized for potentially
fostering weakness due to its
perceived clemency.

Climate is the most pivotal

element of the natural
environment, as it impacts
all geomorphological
processes, from soil
formation to plant growth.
It's this profound
interconnection that renders
climate change so
concerning. Hence, akin to
how the natural environment
reacts to climate, architecture
must also be responsive to it.

Landscaping & Site Features 176193

Key Features:

1. Vegetation chart and relation to building

2. Building to building gap Urban area
3. Adapting Architectural Design to Tropical Terrain: Plain Land,
Slopes, and Waterbodies

Landscaping & Site Features 177193

Identify Types of Vegetation and
Their Distribution

Types of vegetation are used (e.g., trees, shrubs, groundcovers), and

how are they distributed around the building.

If vegetation is well-distributed and strategically placed.

1. Improved shading and reduced heat gain.

2. Aesthetic value and biodiversity increase.
3. rainwater runoff is reduced due to root systems.

If vegetation is poorly placed or sparse.

1. Increased building heat load.

2. Poor outdoor comfort (e.g., lack of shade, barren
spaces).
3. Higher water runoff and soil erosion risk.

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Analyze Vegetation Interaction with
Building

If vegetation effectively interacts with the building.

1. Shading reduces cooling costs and improves indoor

comfort.
2. Trees block harsh winds or channel breezes as
needed.
3. Privacy is enhanced.

If vegetation placement does not consider building interaction.

1. Excessive heat gain or cold drafts indoors.

2. Noisy or exposed outdoor spaces.
3. Missed opportunity for energy efficiency.

Landscaping & Site Features 179193

Selection of Species Based on
Climatic Needs

There are specific species chosen for climatic adaptability (e.g.,

drought-resistant or fast-growing plants).

If climate-appropriate species are chosen.

1. Minimal water usage and maintenance costs.

2. Resilient landscaping that thrives year-round.
3. Enhanced microclimate control (cooling, humidity).

If inappropriate species are selected.

1. Plants may fail, increasing replacement costs.

2. Over-irrigation might strain resources.
3. Reduced ecological value (e.g., poor habitat
support).

Landscaping & Site Features 180193

Vegetation’s Effect on Indoor
Conditions

Vegetation placement affect indoor conditions (e.g., reducing heat

gain, improving air quality).

If vegetation placement benefits indoor conditions.

1. Reduced reliance on HVAC systems.

2. Improved air quality through filtration of dust and
pollutants.
3. Comfortable indoor lighting and temperature.
If vegetation placement does not impact indoor conditions.

1. High energy costs for heating/cooling.

2. Increased glare and overheating.
3. Poor indoor air quality.

Landscaping & Site Features 181193

Does the gap create a favorable
microclimate that improves user
comfort in both outdoor and indoor
spaces?

If the gap contributes positively to the microclimate.

1. Comfortable outdoor spaces where people can

congregate or walk.
2. Reduced temperature extremes and increased
humidity control.
3. High user satisfaction with the climate conditions.

If the gap negatively affects the microclimate.

1. Uncomfortable outdoor conditions due to excessive

sun or wind.
2. High temperature fluctuations, leading to discomfort.
3. Poor outdoor space usage due to harsh conditions.

Landscaping & Site Features 181193

Outdoor Space Definition Using
Vegetation

Vegetation is used to define outdoor spaces like courtyards,

gardens, or buffer zones.

If vegetation defines outdoor spaces effectively.

1. Creates functional zones (e.g., seating areas,

shaded walkways).
2. Enhances privacy and reduces noise.
3. Supports biodiversity and relaxation.

If outdoor spaces lack vegetation-based definition.

1. Spaces feel disorganized or underutilized.

2. Lack of shade or privacy reduces usability.
3. Noisy or exposed areas lead to discomfort.

Landscaping & Site Features 182193

Chart of indoor and outdoor plants
and their effectiveness in passive design
Indoor Plants
Effectiveness
Plant Type in Passive Advantages Disadvantages
Design (%)
Improves
indoor air
quality by
removing
Can be toxic to
1. Snake Plant 20-30% toxins; low
pets if ingested.
maintenance;
enhances
humidity.
Filters air
pollutants;
Sensitive to
thrives in low-
overwatering;
light
mildly toxic to
conditions;
2. Peace Lily 25-35% humans and
improves
pets.
indoor comfort.
Excellent for Requires
improving air occasional
3. Spider Plant 15-25% quality; low pruning to
water and light prevent
requirements. overgrowth.
Natural Requires
humidifier; regular
absorbs carbon maintenance;
4. Areca Palm 30-40%
dioxide and susceptible to
releases oxygen pest
effectively. infestations

Landscaping & Site Features 183193

Outdoor Plants
Effectiveness
Plant Type in Passive Advantages Disadvantages
Design (%)
Provide
extensive shade;
Require
reduce building
1. Shade Trees significant
heat gain;
(e.g., Mango, 60-80% space; long
improve
Neem) maturation
microclimate by
period.
cooling
surroundings.
Acts as a
Requires regular
windbreak;
trimming; some
2. Bamboo 50-70% provides shade
species are
and privacy;
invasive.
grows quickly.

Effective for Requires

wind control; frequent
3. Hedges (e.g.,
enhances pruning; can be
Boxwood, 40-60%
aesthetics; water-intensive
Privet)
serves as a noise depending on
barrier. the species
Reduces soil
May require
4. Ground erosion;
regular watering
Cover (e.g., moderates
and
Creeping 20-40% surface
maintenance
Thyme, temperatures;
depending on
Periwinkle) adds aesthetic
climate.
value.

Landscaping & Site Features 184193

 Effectiveness
Plant Type in Passive Advantages Disadvantages
Design (%)
Stabilizes soil; Less effective
6. Grasses reduces heat for shading;
(e.g., Fountain absorption; low limited cooling
20-30%
Grass, Native maintenance if benefits
Grasses) native species compared to
are used. trees.
Provides
Can damage
vertical
5. Climbing building
shading;
Plants (e.g., facades;
Bougainvillea,
30-50% reduces wall
requires
Ivy) heat absorption;
maintenance to
enhances
control spread
aesthetics.
Water Plants

Effectiveness
Plant Type in Passive Advantages Disadvantages
Design (%)
Enhance
Require
aesthetics of
maintenance of
water bodies;
1. Lotus and water quality;
25-40% contribute to
Water Lilies sensitive to
cooling through
algae or water
evaporation;
pollution
attract wildlife.

Ref: Landscape Plants Database ( university of Florida)

Landscaping & Site Features 185193

Building to building for adequate
airflow and natural ventilation
The gap between buildings is designed to allow airflow
that supports passive cooling and ventilation.

If The gap facilitates airflow

and [Link]
cooling is maximized,
reducing the need for
mechanical cooling (e.g., air
conditioning).Air quality is
improved, promoting healthy
outdoor and indoor
[Link] heat
buildup between buildings.

If the gap restricts airflow

and [Link]
reliance on mechanical
cooling [Link] indoor
air quality and stagnant air
pockets between
[Link] heat
island effect in the area.

Landscaping & Site Features 186193

Does the Building-to-Building Gap
Maximize Solar Access and Minimize
Heat Gain?

The gap is designed to allow optimal solar access for energy

generation or passive heating, while minimizing unwanted heat gain
during hot months

If The gap allows for optimal solar access and shading.

1. Solar energy collection on rooftops or facades is

maximized.
2. Shading between buildings reduces heat gain,
improving building performance in summer.
3. Reduced demand on cooling systems.
If The gap results in excessive sun exposure or poor shading.

1. Buildings experience high heat gain, increasing

cooling demand.
2. Inefficient use of solar energy (if the design doesn't
support solar panels).
3. Energy consumption increases, and indoor spaces
become uncomfortably hot.

Landscaping & Site Features 187193

Does the Building-to-Building Gap
Support Green Infrastructure for
rainwater Management?

Scenario Analysis:
If the gap includes green infrastructure.
Result:
1. Reduced urban runoff and flood risk.
2. Improved urban greenery, enhancing both aesthetics
and biodiversity.
3. Increased water retention and groundwater recharge.

If the gap lacks green infrastructure.

Result:
1. Increased rainwater runoff, potentially causing
localized flooding.
2. Decreased urban biodiversity and green cover.
3. Higher demand on urban drainage systems.

Landscaping & Site Features 188193

Does the Building-to-Building Gap
Minimize the Urban Heat Island Effect?

Scenario Analysis:
If the gap reduces the urban heat island effect.

1. Lower temperatures in the surrounding urban area,

improving comfort.
2. Reduced cooling costs for buildings.
3. Healthier outdoor spaces with less heat-related stress.

If the gap exacerbates the UHI effect.

1. Increased surface temperatures, leading to hotter

urban conditions.
2. Higher energy demand for cooling.
3. Increased risk of heat-related health problems.

Landscaping & Site Features 189193

Here’s a chart dividing the building-
to-building gap measurements into
low-rise and high-rise buildings :

High-Rise
Low-Rise Buildings
Criteria Buildings (4 Floors
(Up to 3 Floors)
or More)
1.5–2 times the height 1.5–2 times the height
Natural Ventilation
of the building of the taller building

At least the height of At least the height of

Daylighting
the building the taller building

Privacy 3–5 meters 15–30 meters

Fire Safety Minimum 6 meters Minimum 10–15 meters

Larger gaps for hot and

Proportional to building
humid climates;
Climatic Adjustments height and climatic
compact spacing for hot
conditions
and dry climates

h1
h2
d

Ref: [Link]

Landscaping & Site Features 190193

Adapting Architectural Design to
Tropical Terrain: Plain Land,
Slopes, and Waterbodies

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a sustainable strategy in climate-

responsive design where rain is collected from rooftops and
stored for reuse. This practice helps conserve potable water,
reduce runoff, and mitigate flooding. Stored rainwater can be
used for irrigation, livestock, domestic needs (with treatment),
and groundwater recharge. Incorporating RWH in buildings
promotes water conservation, supports resilience to water
shortages, and reduces dependence on municipal water systems,
contributing to overall sustainability in the face
of climate change.

Landscaping & Site Features 191193

Types of Sloping Sites
It is important to
understand the different
types of slopes and how
they impact the
construction process.
Depending on the type of
slope, different approaches
may be required when
building on them. Retaining
walls may need to be built
in order to stabilize the soil,
and foundations may also
need to be adjusted in order
to accommodate for any
changes in elevation.

Natural cooling
Natural cooling refers to
the use of ventilation or
natural heat sinks for
heat dissipation from
indoor spaces. Natural
cooling can be separated
into five different
categories: ventilation,
night flushing, radiative
cooling, evaporative
cooling,
and earth coupling.

Landscaping & Site Features 192193

Waterbody and passive cooling
relation
water bodies contribute to passive cooling by harnessing the
natural processes of evaporation, thermal storage, and wind
modification. These strategies are fundamental in reducing the
reliance on active cooling systems, thus promoting energy
efficiency and sustainability in tropical housing.

Landscaping & Site Features 193193

Microclimatic Feature

Aspect Better Good Worst

Dense tree
Sparse tree
canopy or
canopy or Open, exposed
Shade layered
intermittent areas with no
Availability planting for
shade from shade.
cool, shaded
structures.
areas.
Well-placed Moderate wind Open areas
Wind windbreaks buffering with with strong,
Management (e.g., hedges or scattered unmitigated
dense shrubs). planting. wind exposure.

Use of
vegetation to Lightly planted
Excessive
reduce urban areas with
Temperature paved surfaces
heat island some heat-
Moderation without any
effect (e.g., absorbing
vegetation.
ground cover, surfaces.
dense foliage).

Permeable
Moderate
surfaces, rain Poor drainage
Water drainage with
gardens, and leading to
Retention and some standing
proper drainage flooding or
Drainage water during
to prevent stagnant water.
rains.
waterlogging.

Landscaping & Site Features 194193

Aspect Better Good Worst

Balanced Higher Overcrowding

humidity humidity with leading to
Humidity
through proper dense planting excessive
Control
spacing and but sufficient humidity and
airflow. airflow. fungal issues.

Mixed planting
Monocultures
of native Limited native
or non-native
species species with
Biodiversity species causing
supporting low
ecological
pollinators and biodiversity.
imbalance.
wildlife.
Dense
vegetation
Sparse or no
barriers (e.g., Moderate
Noise and Air vegetation
tall hedges or vegetation
Pollution contributing to
trees) reducing acting as partial
Buffering high noise and
noise and buffer.
poor air quality.
improving air
quality.

Filtered
Excessive,
sunlight Direct sunlight
Sunlight unrelenting
through trees with moderate
Penetration sunlight with
for understory exposure.
no relief.
plants.

Ref: Landscape Plants Database ( university of Florida)

Landscaping & Site Features 195193

Conclusion:
Tropical climate design is about blending sustainability with
comfort. By using natural ventilation, shading, and local materials,
we can create buildings that thrive in the heat and humidity while
respecting the environment. A thoughtful, responsive approach
ensures spaces are efficient, resilient, and in harmony with
their surroundings.

**This diagram aligns with the "Manual of Tropical Housing and Building" by illustrating
sustainable water management techniques such as in-situ infiltration, water reservoirs, and
diversions. These methods improve soil moisture, regulate temperature, and enhance air
humidity, fostering a balanced microclimate. Such strategies support efficient land use and
sustainable agricultural practices in tropical environments.

Landscaping & Site Features 196193

CHECK LIST :
✓ Tropical climate and its relation to topography
✓ Vegetation , its distribution and relation to building
✓ Building to building required gap for adequate airflow,
natural ventilation, heat gain, solar access, rainwater
management, urban hear island effect
✓ Adaptation to tropical terrains
✓ Microclimatic factors

Landscaping & Site Features 197193