Linux Kernel and Driver Development Training

Linux Kernel and Driver

Development Training

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
Latest update: December 20, 2021.

Document updates and sources:

[Link] kernel

Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome! embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Send them to feedback@[Link]

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 Rights to copy

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin

License: Creative Commons Attribution - Share Alike 3.0
[Link]
You are free:
▶ to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work
▶ to make derivative works
▶ to make commercial use of the work
Under the following conditions:
▶ Attribution. You must give the original author credit.
▶ Share Alike. If you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute the resulting work only
under a license identical to this one.
▶ For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this work.
▶ Any of these conditions can be waived if you get permission from the copyright holder.
Your fair use and other rights are in no way affected by the above.

Document sources: [Link]

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 Hyperlinks in the document

There are many hyperlinks in the document

▶ Regular hyperlinks:
[Link]
▶ Kernel documentation links:
dev-tools/kasan
▶ Links to kernel source files and directories:
drivers/input/
include/linux/fb.h
▶ Links to the declarations, definitions and instances of kernel symbols (functions,
types, data, structures):
platform_get_irq()
GFP_KERNEL
struct file_operations

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 Company at a glance

▶ Engineering company created in 2004,

named ”Free Electrons” until Feb. 2018.
▶ Main locations: Toulouse, Lyon (France)
▶ Serving customers all around the world
▶ Head count: 13 - Only Free Software enthusiasts!
▶ Focus: Embedded Linux, Linux kernel, build systems and low
level Free and Open Source Software for embedded and
real-time systems.
▶ Feb. 2021: Bootlin is the 20th all-time Linux kernel contributor
▶ Activities: development, training, consulting, technical support.
▶ Added value: get the best of the user and development
community and the resources it offers.
Top Linux contributors since git (2005)
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 Bootlin on-line resources

▶ All our training materials and technical

presentations:
[Link]
▶ Technical blog:
[Link]
▶ Quick news (Mastodon):
[Link]
▶ Quick news (Twitter):
[Link]
▶ Quick news (LinkedIn): Mastodon is a free and decentralized
https: social network created in the best
//[Link]/company/bootlin interests of its users.
▶ Elixir - browse Linux kernel sources on-line: Image credits: Jin Nguyen - [Link]

[Link]
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 Generic course information

Generic course
information

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Supported hardware

BeagleBone Black or BeagleBone Black Wireless, from [Link]

▶ Texas Instruments AM335x (ARM Cortex-A8 CPU)
▶ SoC with 3D acceleration, additional processors (PRUs) and lots of
peripherals.
▶ 512 MB of RAM
▶ 4 GB of on-board eMMC storage
▶ USB host and USB device, microSD, micro HDMI
▶ WiFi and Bluetooth (wireless version), otherwise Ethernet
▶ 2 x 46 pins headers, with access to many expansion buses (I2C, SPI, UART
and more)
▶ A huge number of expansion boards, called capes. See
[Link]

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 Shopping list: hardware for this course

▶ BeagleBone Black or BeagleBone Black Wireless - Multiple distributors:

See [Link]
▶ USB Serial Cable - 3.3 V - Female ends (for serial console) 1

▶ Nintendo Nunchuk with UEXT connector 2

▶ Breadboard jumper wires - Male ends (to connect the Nunchuk) 3

▶ USB Serial Cable - 3.3 V - Male ends (for serial labs, two if possible):
Olimex: [Link]
▶ Note that both USB serial cables are the same.
Only the gender of their connector changes.
1
[Link]
2
[Link]
3
[Link]

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 Training quiz and certificate

▶ You have been given a quiz to test your knowledge on the topics covered by the
course. That’s not too late to take it if you haven’t done it yet!
▶ At the end of the course, we will submit this quiz to you again. That time, you
will see the correct answers.
▶ It allows Bootlin to assess your progress thanks to the course. That’s also a kind
of challenge, to look for clues throughout the lectures and labs / demos, as all the
answers are in the course!
▶ Another reason is that we only give training certificates to people who achieve at
least a 50% score in the final quiz and who attended all the sessions.

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 Participate!

During the lectures...

▶ Don’t hesitate to ask questions. Other people in the audience may have similar
questions too.
▶ This helps the trainer to detect any explanation that wasn’t clear or detailed
enough.
▶ Don’t hesitate to share your experience, for example to compare Linux with other
operating systems used in your company.
▶ Your point of view is most valuable, because it can be similar to your colleagues’
and different from the trainer’s.
▶ Your participation can make our session more interactive and make the topics
easier to learn.

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 Cooperate!

As in the Free Software and Open Source community, cooperation

during practical labs is valuable in this training session:
▶ Use the dedicated Matrix channel for this session
▶ If you complete your labs before other people, don’t hesitate to
help them and investigate the issues they face. The faster we
progress as a group, the more time we have to explore extra
topics.
▶ Explain what you understood to other participants when needed.
It also helps to consolidate your knowledge.
▶ Don’t hesitate to report potential bugs to your instructor.
▶ Don’t hesitate to look for solutions on the Internet as well.

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 Practical lab - Training Setup

Prepare your lab environment

▶ Download and extract the lab archive

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 Linux Kernel Introduction

Linux Kernel
Introduction

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Linux Kernel Introduction

Linux features

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 History

▶ The Linux kernel is one component of a system, which also

requires libraries and applications to provide features to end
users.
▶ The Linux kernel was created as a hobby in 1991 by a Finnish
student, Linus Torvalds.
▶ Linux quickly started to be used as the kernel for free software
operating systems
▶ Linus Torvalds has been able to create a large and dynamic
developer and user community around Linux. Linus Torvalds in 2014
▶ Nowadays, more than one thousand people contribute to each Image credits (Wikipedia):
[Link]
kernel release, individuals or companies big and small.

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 Linux kernel key features

▶ Portability and hardware support.

▶ Security. It can’t hide its flaws. Its
Runs on most architectures
code is reviewed by many experts.
(see arch/ in the source code).
▶ Stability and reliability.
▶ Scalability. Can run on super
computers as well as on tiny devices ▶ Modularity. Can include only what a
(4 MB of RAM is enough). system needs even at run time.
▶ Compliance to standards and ▶ Easy to program. You can learn from
interoperability. existing code. Many useful resources
▶ Exhaustive networking support. on the net.

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 Linux kernel in the system

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 Linux kernel main roles

▶ Manage all the hardware resources: CPU, memory, I/O.

▶ Provide a set of portable, architecture and hardware independent APIs to
allow user space applications and libraries to use the hardware resources.
▶ Handle concurrent accesses and usage of hardware resources from different
applications.
▶ Example: a single network interface is used by multiple user space applications
through various network connections. The kernel is responsible for “multiplexing”
the hardware resource.

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 System calls

▶ The main interface between the kernel and user space is

the set of system calls
▶ About 400 system calls that provide the main kernel
services
▶ File and device operations, networking operations,
inter-process communication, process management,
memory mapping, timers, threads, synchronization
primitives, etc.
▶ This interface is stable over time: only new system calls
can be added by the kernel developers
▶ This system call interface is wrapped by the C library,
Image credits (Wikipedia):
and user space applications usually never make a system [Link]
call directly but rather use the corresponding C library
function
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 Pseudo filesystems

▶ Linux makes system and kernel information available in user space through
pseudo filesystems, sometimes also called virtual filesystems
▶ Pseudo filesystems allow applications to see directories and files that do not exist
on any real storage: they are created and updated on the fly by the kernel
▶ The two most important pseudo filesystems are
▶ proc, usually mounted on /proc:
Operating system related information (processes, memory management
parameters...)
▶ sysfs, usually mounted on /sys:
Representation of the system as a tree of devices connected by buses. Information
gathered by the kernel frameworks managing these devices.

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 Inside the Linux kernel

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 Linux license

▶ The whole Linux sources are Free Software released under the GNU General
Public License version 2 (GPL v2).
▶ For the Linux kernel, this basically implies that:
▶ When you receive or buy a device with Linux on it, you have the right to obtain the
Linux sources, with the right to study, modify and redistribute them.
▶ When you produce Linux based devices, be prepared to release the sources to the
recipient, with the same rights, with no restriction.

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 Supported hardware architectures

See the arch/ directory in the kernel sources

▶ Minimum: 32 bit processors, with or without MMU, supported by gcc or clang
▶ 32 bit architectures (arch/ subdirectories)
Examples: arm, arc, m68k, microblaze (soft core on FPGA)...
▶ 64 bit architectures:
Examples: alpha, arm64, ia64...
▶ 32/64 bit architectures
Examples: mips, powerpc, riscv, sh, sparc, x86...
▶ Note that unmaintained architectures can also be removed when they have
compiling issues and nobody fixes them.
▶ Find details in kernel sources: arch/<arch>/Kconfig, arch/<arch>/README, or
Documentation/<arch>/

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 Embedded Linux Kernel Usage

Embedded Linux Kernel

Usage

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Embedded Linux Kernel Usage

Linux kernel sources

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 Location of kernel sources
▶ The official (mainline) versions of the Linux kernel, as released by Linus Torvalds,
are available at [Link]
▶ These versions follow the development model of the kernel
▶ However, they may not contain the latest developments from a specific area yet.
Some features in development might not be ready for mainline inclusion yet.
▶ Many chip vendors supply their own kernel sources
▶ Focusing on hardware support first
▶ Can have a very important delta with mainline Linux
▶ Useful only when mainline hasn’t caught up yet. Many vendors invest in the
mainline kernel at the same time.
▶ Many kernel sub-communities maintain their own kernel, with usually newer but
fewer stable features
▶ Architecture communities (ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, etc.), device drivers communities
(I2C, SPI, USB, PCI, network, etc.), other communities (real-time, etc.)
▶ No official releases, only meant for sharing work and contributing to the mainline
version. Absolutely not meant to be used in products.
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 Getting Linux sources

▶ The kernel sources are available from [Link]

as full tarballs (complete kernel sources) and patches (differences between two
kernel versions).
▶ However, more and more people use the git version control system. Absolutely
needed for kernel development!
▶ Fetch the entire kernel sources and history
git clone [Link]
▶ Create a branch that starts at a specific stable version
git checkout -b <name-of-branch> v5.6
▶ Web interface available at
[Link]
▶ Read more about Git at [Link]

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 Linux kernel size (1)

▶ Linux 5.10.11 sources:

▶ 70,639 files (git ls-files | wc -l)
▶ 29,746,102 lines (git ls-files | xargs cat | wc -l)
▶ 962,810,769 bytes (git ls-files | xargs cat | wc -c)
▶ A minimum uncompressed Linux kernel just sizes 1-2 MB
▶ Why are these sources so big?
Because they include thousands of device drivers, many network protocols,
support many architectures and filesystems...
▶ The Linux core (scheduler, memory management...) is pretty small!

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 Linux kernel size (2)

As of kernel version 5.7 (in percentage of total number of lines).

▶ drivers/: 60.1% ▶ lib/: 0.6%

▶ arch/: 12.9% ▶ mm/: 0.5%
▶ fs/: 4.7% ▶ scripts/: 0.4%
▶ sound/: 4.2% ▶ crypto/: 0.4%
▶ net/: 4.0% ▶ security/: 0.3%
▶ include/: 3.6% ▶ block/: 0.2%
▶ tools/: 3.2% ▶ samples/: 0.1%
▶ Documentation/: 3.2% ▶ virt/: 0.1%
▶ kernel/: 1.3% ▶ ...

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 Practical lab - Downloading kernel source code

▶ Clone the mainline Linux source tree with git

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 Kernel Source Code

Kernel Source Code

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Kernel Source Code

Linux Code and Device Drivers

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 Programming language

▶ Implemented in C like all UNIX systems

▶ A little Assembly is used too:
▶ CPU and machine initialization, exceptions
▶ Critical library routines.
▶ No C++ used, see [Link]
▶ All the code compiled with gcc
▶ Many gcc specific extensions used in the kernel code, any ANSI C compiler will not
compile the kernel
▶ See [Link]
▶ Ongoing work to compile the kernel with the LLVM C compiler (Clang) too:
[Link]
▶ There are also plans to create new code in Rust too:
[Link]

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 No C library

▶ The kernel has to be standalone and can’t use user space code.
▶ Architectural reason: user space is implemented on top of kernel services, not the
opposite.
▶ Technical reason: the kernel is on its own during the boot up phase, before it has
accessed a root filesystem.
▶ Hence, kernel code has to supply its own library implementations (string utilities,
cryptography, uncompression...)
▶ So, you can’t use standard C library functions in kernel code (printf(),
memset(), malloc(),...).
▶ Fortunately, the kernel provides similar C functions for your convenience, like
printk(), memset(), kmalloc(), ...

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 Portability

▶ The Linux kernel code is designed to be portable

▶ All code outside arch/ should be portable
▶ To this aim, the kernel provides macros and functions to abstract the architecture
specific details
▶ Endianness
▶ cpu_to_be32()
▶ cpu_to_le32()
▶ be32_to_cpu()
▶ le32_to_cpu()
▶ I/O memory access
▶ Memory barriers to provide ordering guarantees if needed
▶ DMA API to flush and invalidate caches if needed
▶ Never use floating point numbers in kernel code. Your code may need to run on a
low-end processor without a floating point unit.

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 No stable Linux internal API

▶ The internal kernel API to implement kernel code can

no stable ABI over Linux kernel releases,
undergo changes between two releases. binaries are not portable

✘ DRM

▶ In-tree drivers are updated by the developer proposing

in Linux kernel 4.14
the API change: works great for mainline code.
▶ An out-of-tree driver compiled for a given version may binary
device ✘ DRM
driver
no longer compile or work on a more recent one. compiled for in Linux kernel 4.7
Linux kernel 4.0
▶ See process/stable-api-nonsense in kernel
documentation for reasons why. ✔ DRM

▶ Of course, the kernel to user space API does not change in Linux kernel 4.0
Image credits (Wikipedia):
(system calls, /proc, /sys), as it would break existing [Link]

programs.

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 Kernel memory constraints

▶ No memory protection
▶ The kernel doesn’t try to recover from attemps to access illegal memory locations.
It just dumps oops messages on the system console.
▶ Fixed size stack (8 or 4 KB). Unlike in user space, no mechanism was
implemented to make it grow. Don’t use recursion!
▶ Swapping is not implemented for kernel memory either
(Exception: tmpfs filesystem pages)

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 Linux kernel licensing constraints

▶ The Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License version 2
▶ This license gives you the right to use, study, modify and share the software freely
▶ However, when the software is redistributed, either modified or unmodified, the
GPL requires that you redistribute the software under the same license, with the
source code
▶ If modifications are made to the Linux kernel (for example to adapt it to your
hardware), it is a derivative work of the kernel, and therefore must be released under
GPLv2
▶ The validity of the GPL on this point has already been verified in courts
▶ However, you’re only required to do so
▶ At the time the device starts to be distributed
▶ To your customers, not to the entire world

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 Proprietary code and the kernel

▶ It is illegal to distribute a binary kernel that includes

statically compiled proprietary drivers
▶ The kernel modules are a gray area: are they derived works
of the kernel or not?
▶ The general opinion of the kernel community is that
proprietary modules are bad:
process/kernel-driver-statement
▶ From a legal point of view, each driver is probably a different
case
▶ Is it really useful to keep your drivers secret?
▶ There are some examples of proprietary drivers, like the
Nvidia graphics drivers
▶ They use a wrapper between the driver and the kernel
▶ Unclear whether it makes it legal or not

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 Advantages of GPL drivers

▶ You don’t have to write your driver from scratch. You can reuse code from similar
free software drivers.
▶ Your drivers can be freely and easily shipped by others (for example by Linux
distributions or embedded Linux build systems).
▶ Pre-compiled drivers work with only one kernel version and one specific
configuration, making life difficult for users who want to change the kernel version.
▶ Legal certainty, you are sure that a GPL driver is fine from a legal point of view.

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 Advantages of mainlining your kernel drivers

▶ The community, reviewers and maintainers will review your code before accepting
it, offering you the opportunity to enhance it and understand better the internal
APIs.
▶ Once accepted, you will get cost-free bug and security fixes, support for new
features, and general improvements.
▶ Your work will automatically follow the API changes.
▶ Accessing your code will be much easier for users.
▶ Your code will remain valid no matter the kernel version.
This will for sure reduce your maintenance and support work

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 User space device drivers 1/3

▶ In some cases, it is possible to implement device drivers in user space!

▶ Can be used when
▶ The kernel provides a mechanism that allows user space applications to directly
access the hardware.
▶ There is no need to leverage an existing kernel subsystem such as the networking
stack or filesystems.
▶ There is no need for the kernel to act as a “multiplexer” for the device: only one
application accesses the device.

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 User space device drivers 2/3

▶ Possibilities for user space device drivers:

▶ USB with libusb, [Link]
▶ SPI with spidev, spi/spidev
▶ I2C with i2cdev, i2c/dev-interface
▶ Memory-mapped devices with UIO, including interrupt handling,
driver-api/uio-howto
▶ Certain classes of devices (printers, scanners, 2D/3D graphics acceleration) are
typically handled partly in kernel space, partly in user space.

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 User space device drivers 3/3

▶ Advantages
▶ No need for kernel coding skills. Easier to reuse code between devices.
▶ Drivers can be written in any language, even Perl!
▶ Drivers can be kept proprietary.
▶ Driver code can be killed and debugged. Cannot crash the kernel.
▶ Can use floating-point computation.
▶ Less in-kernel complexity.
▶ Potentially higher performance, especially for memory-mapped devices, thanks to the
avoidance of system calls.
▶ Drawbacks
▶ Missing hardware abstraction provided by the kernel, need to adapt applications
when replacing one device by another.
▶ Less straightforward to handle interrupts.
▶ Increased interrupt latency vs. kernel code.

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 Kernel Source Code

Linux sources

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 Linux sources structure 1/5

▶ arch/<ARCH>
▶ Architecture specific code
▶ arch/<ARCH>/mach-<machine>, SoC family specific code
▶ arch/<ARCH>/include/asm, architecture-specific headers
▶ arch/<ARCH>/boot/dts, Device Tree source files, for some architectures
▶ block/
▶ Block layer core
▶ certs/
▶ Management of certificates for key signing
▶ COPYING
▶ Linux copying conditions (GNU GPL)
▶ CREDITS
▶ Linux main contributors

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 Linux sources structure 2/5

▶ crypto/
▶ Cryptographic libraries
▶ Documentation/
▶ Kernel documentation sources
Generated documentation available on [Link]
(includes functions prototypes and comments extracted from source code).
▶ drivers/
▶ All device drivers except sound ones (usb, pci...)
▶ fs/
▶ Filesystems (fs/ext4/, etc.)
▶ include/
▶ Kernel headers
▶ include/linux/
▶ Linux kernel core headers

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 Linux sources structure 3/5
▶ include/uapi/
▶ User space API headers
▶ init/
▶ Linux initialization (including init/main.c)
▶ ipc/
▶ Code used for Inter Process Communication
▶ Kbuild
▶ Part of the kernel build system
▶ Kconfig
▶ Top level description file for configuration parameters
▶ kernel/
▶ Linux kernel core (very small!)
▶ lib/
▶ Misc library routines (zlib, crc32...)

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 Linux sources structure 4/5

▶ MAINTAINERS
▶ Maintainers of each kernel part. Very useful!
▶ Makefile
▶ Top Linux Makefile (sets version information)
▶ mm/
▶ Memory management code (small too!)
▶ net/
▶ Network support code (not drivers)
▶ README
▶ Description of kernel documentation
▶ samples/
▶ Sample code (markers, kprobes, kobjects, bpf...)

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 Linux sources structure 5/5

▶ scripts/
▶ Executables for kernel building and debugging
▶ security/
▶ Security model implementations (SELinux...)
▶ sound/
▶ Sound support code and drivers
▶ tools/
▶ Code for various user space tools (mostly C, example: perf)
▶ usr/
▶ Code to generate an initramfs cpio archive
▶ virt/
▶ Virtualization support (KVM)

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 Kernel Source Code

Kernel source management tools

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 Cscope

▶ Tool to browse source code (mainly C, but also C++ or Java)

▶ Supports huge projects like the Linux kernel. Typically takes less than 1 min. to
index the whole Linux sources.
▶ In Linux kernel sources, two ways of running it:
▶ cscope -Rk
All files for all architectures at once
▶ make cscope
cscope -d [Link]
Only files for your current architecture
▶ Allows searching for a symbol, a definition, functions, strings, files, etc.
▶ Integration with editors like vim and emacs.
▶ [Link]

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 Cscope screenshot

[Tab]: move the cursor between search results and commands

[Ctrl] [D]: exit cscope
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 Elixir: browsing the Linux kernel sources

▶ [Link]
▶ Generic source indexing tool and code browser for C and C++. Inspired by the
LXR project (Linux Cross Reference).
▶ Web server based, very easy and fast to use
▶ Very easy to find the declaration, implementation or usage of symbols
▶ Supports huge code projects such as the Linux kernel with a git repository. Scales
much better than LXR by only indexing new git objects found in each new release.
▶ Takes a little time and patience to setup (configuration, indexing, web server
configuration)
▶ You don’t need to set up Elixir by yourself. Use our
[Link] server!

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 [Link]

Project
selection Current
(U-Boot, directory
Linux,
BusyBox...)

Identifier
search
Source
browsing

All versions
available

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 Text editors and IDEs for kernel development

▶ You can use text editors (Emacs, Vim...) to

work on kernel code.
▶ At least Vim and Emacs support ctags and
cscope and therefore can help with symbol
lookup and auto-completion.
▶ It’s also possible to use more elaborate IDEs to
develop kernel code, such as Eclipse, QtCreator
and most often Visual Studio Code: See
Michael Opdenacker’s presentation ELCE 2020:

▶ Title: Using Visual Studio Code for Embedded

Linux Development
▶ Slides: [Link]
▶ Video: [Link]

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 Practical lab - Kernel Source Code - Exploring

▶ Explore kernel sources manually

▶ Use automated tools to explore the source code

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 Kernel Source Code

Building the kernel

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 Kernel Source Code

Kernel configuration

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 Kernel configuration

▶ The kernel contains thousands of device drivers, filesystem drivers, network

protocols and other configurable items
▶ Thousands of options are available, that are used to selectively compile parts of
the kernel source code
▶ The kernel configuration is the process of defining the set of options with which
you want your kernel to be compiled
▶ The set of options depends
▶ On the target architecture and on your hardware (for device drivers, etc.)
▶ On the capabilities you would like to give to your kernel (network capabilities,
filesystems, real-time, etc.). Such generic options are available in all architectures.

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 Kernel configuration and build system

▶ The kernel configuration and build system is based on multiple Makefiles

▶ One only interacts with the main Makefile, present at the top directory of the
kernel source tree
▶ Interaction takes place
▶ using the make tool, which parses the Makefile
▶ through various targets, defining which action should be done (configuration,
compilation, installation, etc.).
▶ Run make help to see all available targets.
▶ Example
▶ cd linux/
▶ make <target>

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 Specifying the target architecture

First, specify the architecture for the kernel to build

▶ Set ARCH to the name of a directory under arch/:
export ARCH=arm
▶ By default, the kernel build system assumes that the kernel is configured and built
for the host architecture (x86 in our case, native kernel compiling)
▶ The kernel build system will use this setting to:
▶ Use the configuration options for the target architecture.
▶ Compile the kernel with source code and headers for the target architecture.

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 Choose a compiler
The compiler invoked by the kernel Makefile is $(CROSS_COMPILE)gcc
▶ Specifying the compiler is already needed at configuration time, as some kernel
configuration options depend on the capabilities of the compiler.
▶ When compiling natively
▶ Leave CROSS_COMPILE undefined and the kernel will be natively compiled for the host
architecture using gcc.
▶ When using a cross-compiler
▶ To make the difference with a native compiler, cross-compiler executables are
prefixed by the name of the target system, architecture and sometimes library.
Examples:
mips-linux-gcc: the prefix is mips-linux-
arm-linux-gnueabi-gcc: the prefix is arm-linux-gnueabi-
▶ So, you can specify your cross-compiler as follows:
export CROSS_COMPILE=arm-linux-gnueabi-
CROSS_COMPILE is actually the prefix of the cross compiling tools
(gcc, as, ld, objcopy, strip...).
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 Specifying ARCH and CROSS_COMPILE

There are actually two ways of defining ARCH and CROSS_COMPILE:

▶ Pass ARCH and CROSS_COMPILE on the make command line:
make ARCH=arm CROSS_COMPILE=arm-linux- ...
Drawback: it is easy to forget to pass these variables when you run any make
command, causing your build and configuration to be screwed up.
▶ Define ARCH and CROSS_COMPILE as environment variables:
export ARCH=arm
export CROSS_COMPILE=arm-linux-
Drawback: it only works inside the current shell or terminal. You could put these
settings in a file that you source every time you start working on the project. If
you only work on a single architecture with always the same toolchain, you could
even put these settings in your ~/.bashrc file to make them permanent and
visible from any terminal.

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 Kernel configuration details

▶ The configuration is stored in the .config file at the root of kernel sources
▶ Simple text file, CONFIG_PARAM=value (included by the kernel Makefile)
▶ As options have dependencies, typically never edited by hand, but through
graphical or text interfaces:
▶ make xconfig, make gconfig (graphical)
▶ make menuconfig, make nconfig (text)
▶ You can switch from one to another, they all load/save the same .config file, and
show the same set of options

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 Initial configuration

Difficult to find which kernel configuration will work with your hardware and root
filesystem. Start with one that works!
▶ Desktop or server case:
▶ Advisable to start with the configuration of your running kernel:
cp /boot/config-`uname -r` .config
▶ Embedded platform case:
▶ Default configurations stored in-tree as minimal configuration files (only listing
settings that are different with the defaults) in arch/<arch>/configs/
▶ make help will list the available configurations for your platform
▶ To load a default configuration file, just run make foo_defconfig (will erase your
current .config!)
▶ On ARM 32-bit, there is usually one default configuration per CPU family
▶ On ARM 64-bit, there is only one big default configuration to customize

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 Create your own default configuration

▶ Use a tool such as make menuconfig to make changes to the configuration

▶ Saving your changes will overwrite your .config (not tracked by Git)
▶ When happy with it, create your own default configuration file:
▶ Create a minimal configuration (non-default settings) file:
make savedefconfig
▶ Save this default configuration in the right directory:
mv defconfig arch/<arch>/configs/myown_defconfig
▶ This way, you can share a reference configuration inside the kernel sources and
other developers can now get the same .config as you by running
make myown_defconfig

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 Kernel or module?

▶ The kernel image is a single file, resulting from the linking of all object files that
correspond to features enabled in the configuration
▶ This is the file that gets loaded in memory by the bootloader
▶ All included features are therefore available as soon as the kernel starts, at a time
where no filesystem exists
▶ Some features (device drivers, filesystems, etc.) can however be compiled as
modules
▶ These are plugins that can be loaded/unloaded dynamically to add/remove features
to the kernel
▶ Each module is stored as a separate file in the filesystem, and therefore access
to a filesystem is mandatory to use modules
▶ This is not possible in the early boot procedure of the kernel, because no filesystem
is available

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 Kernel option types

There are different types of options, defined in Kconfig files:

▶ bool options, they are either
▶ true (to include the feature in the kernel) or
▶ false (to exclude the feature from the kernel)
▶ tristate options, they are either
▶ true (to include the feature in the kernel image) or
▶ module (to include the feature as a kernel module) or
▶ false (to exclude the feature)
▶ int options, to specify integer values
▶ hex options, to specify hexadecimal values
Example: CONFIG_PAGE_OFFSET=0xC0000000
▶ string options, to specify string values
Example: CONFIG_LOCALVERSION=-no-network
Useful to distinguish between two kernels built from different options

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 Kernel option dependencies

There are dependencies between kernel options

▶ For example, enabling a network driver requires the network stack to be enabled
▶ Two types of dependencies:
▶ depends on dependencies. In this case,
option B that depends on option A is not
visible until option A is enabled
▶ select dependencies. In this case, with
option B depending on option A, when
option A is enabled, option B is
automatically enabled. In particular, such Kconfig file excerpt
dependencies are used to declare what
features a hardware architecture supports.

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 make xconfig

make xconfig
▶ The most common graphical interface to configure the kernel.
▶ File browser: easier to load configuration files
▶ Search interface to look for parameters
▶ Required Debian / Ubuntu packages: qt5-default

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 make xconfig screenshot

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 make xconfig search interface
Looks for a keyword in the parameter name (shortcut: [Ctrl] + [f]).
Allows to set values to found parameters.

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 Kernel configuration options

Compiled as a module (separate file)

CONFIG_ISO9660_FS=m

Driver options
CONFIG_JOLIET=y
CONFIG_ZISOFS=y

Compiled statically into the kernel

CONFIG_UDF_FS=y

Values in resulting .config file Parameter values as displayed in make xconfig

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 Corresponding .config file excerpt
Options are grouped by sections and are prefixed with CONFIG_.
#
# CD-ROM/DVD Filesystems
#
CONFIG_ISO9660_FS=m
CONFIG_JOLIET=y
CONFIG_ZISOFS=y
CONFIG_UDF_FS=y
CONFIG_UDF_NLS=y

#
# DOS/FAT/NT Filesystems
#
# CONFIG_MSDOS_FS is not set
# CONFIG_VFAT_FS is not set
CONFIG_NTFS_FS=m
# CONFIG_NTFS_DEBUG is not set
CONFIG_NTFS_RW=y

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 make menuconfig

make menuconfig
▶ Useful when no graphics are available.
Very efficient interface.
▶ Same interface found in other tools:
BusyBox, Buildroot...
▶ Convenient number shortcuts to jump
directly to search results.
▶ Required Debian packages:
libncurses-dev

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 make oldconfig

make oldconfig
▶ Needed very often!
▶ Useful to upgrade a .config file from an earlier kernel release
▶ Asks for values for new parameters.
▶ ... unlike make menuconfig and make xconfig which silently set default values
for new parameters.
If you edit a .config file by hand, it’s useful to run make oldconfig afterwards, to set
values to new parameters that could have appeared because of dependency changes.

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 Undoing configuration changes

A frequent problem:
▶ After changing several kernel configuration settings, your kernel no longer works.
▶ If you don’t remember all the changes you made, you can get back to your
previous configuration:
$ cp .[Link] .config
▶ All the configuration tools keep this .[Link] backup copy.

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 Kernel Source Code

Compiling and installing the kernel

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 Kernel compilation

make
▶ Run it in the main kernel source directory!
Benefits on parallel make
▶ Remember to run multiple jobs in parallel if you have Tests on Linux 5.11 on arm
gnome-system-monitorBeBenefits of parallel compile jobs (make -j<n>)
Tests
make on Linux 5.11 on configuration
allnoconfig arm

multiple CPU cores / threads. Our advice: ncpus * 2

gnome-system-monitor Showing the load of a system with 4 threads / 2 CPUs
make allnoconfig configuration

or ncpus + 2, to fully load the CPU and I/Os at all

times. make

Example: make -j 8
Command: make
Total time: 129 s

▶ No need to run as root!

▶ To recompile faster (7x according to some benchmarks), make -j8
Command: make -j8
Total time: 67 s

use the ccache compiler cache:

export CROSS_COMPILE="ccache riscv64-linux-"

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 Kernel compilation results

▶ arch/<arch>/boot/Image, uncompressed kernel image that can be booted

▶ arch/<arch>/boot/*Image*, compressed kernel images that can also be booted
▶ bzImage for x86, zImage for ARM, [Link] for RISC-V, [Link] for ARC,
etc.
▶ arch/<arch>/boot/dts/*.dtb, compiled Device Tree Blobs
▶ All kernel modules, spread over the kernel source tree, as .ko (Kernel Object) files.
▶ vmlinux, a raw uncompressed kernel image in the ELF format, useful for
debugging purposes but generally not used for booting purposes

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 Kernel installation: native case

▶ sudo make install

▶ Does the installation for the host system by default
▶ Installs
▶ /boot/vmlinuz-<version>
Compressed kernel image. Same as the one in arch/<arch>/boot
▶ /boot/[Link]-<version>
Stores kernel symbol addresses for debugging purposes (obsolete: such information is
usually stored in the kernel itself)
▶ /boot/config-<version>
Kernel configuration for this version
▶ In GNU/Linux distributions, typically re-runs the bootloader configuration utility
to make the new kernel available at the next boot.

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 Kernel installation: embedded case

▶ make install is rarely used in embedded development, as the kernel image is a

single file, easy to handle.
▶ Another reason is that there is no standard way to deploy and use the kernel
image.
▶ Therefore making the kernel image available to the target is usually manual or
done through scripts in build systems.
▶ It is however possible to customize the make install behavior in
arch/<arch>/boot/[Link]

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 Module installation: native case

▶ sudo make modules_install

▶ Does the installation for the host system by default, so needs to be run as root
▶ Installs all modules in /lib/modules/<version>/
▶ kernel/
Module .ko (Kernel Object) files, in the same directory structure as in the sources.
▶ [Link], [Link]
Aliases for module loading utilities. Further explanations on the next slide.
▶ [Link], [Link]
Module dependencies
▶ [Link], [Link]
Tells which module a given symbol belongs to (related to module dependencies).

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 Automatic module loading with module aliases

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 Module installation: embedded case

▶ In embedded development, you can’t directly use make modules_install as it

would install target modules in /lib/modules on the host!
▶ The INSTALL_MOD_PATH variable is needed to generate the module related files
and install the modules in the target root filesystem instead of your host root
filesystem (no need to be root):
make INSTALL_MOD_PATH=<dir>/ modules_install

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 Kernel cleanup targets

▶ Clean-up generated files (sometimes useful before switching versions,

to avoid untracked output files, or to force re-compilation):
make clean
▶ Remove all generated files. Needed when switching from one
architecture to another. Caution: it also removes your .config file!
make mrproper
▶ Also remove editor backup and patch reject files (mainly to generate
patches):
make distclean
▶ If you are in a git tree, remove all files not tracked (and ignored) by git:
git clean -fdx

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 Kernel building overview

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 Kernel Source Code

Booting the kernel

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 Device Tree 1/2

▶ Many embedded architectures have a lot of non-discoverable hardware (serial,

Ethernet, I2C, Nand flash, USB controllers...)
▶ Depending on the architecture, such hardware is either described in BIOS ACPI
tables (x86), using C code directly within the kernel, or using a special hardware
description language in a Device Tree.
▶ The Device Tree (DT) was created for PowerPC, and later was adopted by other
architectures (ARM, ARC...). Now Linux has DT support in most architectures.
▶ Its main purpose is to describe the hardware and its integration: non-discoverable
devices, clocks, interrupts, DMA channels, pin muxing, etc.

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 Device Tree 2/2

▶ A Device Tree Source (DTS), written by kernel developers, is compiled into a

binary Device Tree Blob (DTB), and needs to be passed to the kernel at boot
time.
▶ There is one different Device Tree for each board/platform supported by the kernel,
available in arch/arm/boot/dts/<board>.dtb.
▶ See arch/arm/boot/dts/at91-sama5d3_xplained.dts for example.
▶ The bootloader must load both the kernel image and the DTB in memory before
starting the kernel.
▶ This way, a kernel supporting different SoCs knows which SoC and device
initialization hooks to run on the current board.

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 Booting with U-Boot

▶ U-Boot can directly boot the zImage binary.

▶ In addition to the kernel image, U-Boot should also pass a DTB to the kernel.
▶ The typical boot process is therefore:
1. Load zImage at address X in memory
2. Load <board>.dtb at address Y in memory
3. Start the kernel with bootz X - Y
The - in the middle indicates no initramfs

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 Kernel command line

▶ In addition to the compile time configuration, the kernel behavior can be adjusted
with no recompilation using the kernel command line
▶ The kernel command line is a string that defines various arguments to the kernel
▶ It is very important for system configuration
▶ root= for the root filesystem (covered later)
▶ console= for the destination of kernel messages
▶ Example: console=ttyS0 root=/dev/mmcblk0p2 rootwait
▶ Many more exist. The most important ones are documented in
admin-guide/kernel-parameters in kernel documentation.

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 Passing the kernel command line

▶ U-Boot carries the Linux kernel command line string in See the ”Understanding U-Boot Falcon
Mode” presentation from Michael
its bootargs environment variable Opdenacker, for details about how U-Boot
boots Linux.
▶ Right before starting the kernel, it will store the content
of bootargs in the chosen section of the Device Tree
▶ The kernel will behave differently depending on its
configuration:
▶ If CONFIG_CMDLINE_FROM_BOOTLOADER is set:
The kernel will use only the string from the bootloader
▶ If CONFIG_CMDLINE_FORCE is set:
The kernel will only use the string received at Slides: https:
configuration time in CONFIG_CMDLINE //[Link]/pub/conferences/2021/lee/
Video: https:
▶ If CONFIG_CMDLINE_EXTEND is set: //[Link]/watch?v=LFe3x2QMhSo
The kernel will concatenate both strings

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 Practical lab - Kernel compiling and booting

1st lab: board and bootloader setup:

▶ Prepare the board and access its serial port
▶ Configure its bootloader to use TFTP
2nd lab: kernel compiling and booting:
▶ Set up a cross-compiling environment
▶ Cross-compile a kernel for an ARM target
platform
▶ Boot this kernel from a directory on your
workstation, accessed by the board through
NFS

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 Kernel Source Code

Using kernel modules

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 Advantages of modules

▶ Modules make it easy to develop drivers without

rebooting: load, test, unload, rebuild, load...
▶ Useful to keep the kernel image size to the minimum
(essential in GNU/Linux distributions for PCs).
▶ Also useful to reduce boot time: you don’t spend time
initializing devices and kernel features that you only
need later.
▶ Caution: once loaded, have full control and privileges in
the system. No particular protection. That’s why only
the root user can load and unload modules.
▶ To increase security, possibility to allow only signed
modules, or to disable module support entirely.

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 Module dependencies

▶ Some kernel modules can depend on other modules, which need to be loaded first.
▶ Example: the ubifs module depends on the ubi and mtd modules.
▶ Dependencies are described both in
/lib/modules/<kernel-version>/[Link] and in
/lib/modules/<kernel-version>/[Link] (binary hashed format)
These files are generated when you run make modules_install.

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 Kernel log

When a new module is loaded, related information is available in the kernel log.
▶ The kernel keeps its messages in a circular buffer (so that it doesn’t consume
more memory with many messages)
▶ Kernel log messages are available through the dmesg command (diagnostic
message)
▶ Kernel log messages are also displayed in the system console (console messages
can be filtered by level using the loglevel kernel command line parameter, or
completely disabled with the quiet parameter). Example:
console=ttyS0 root=/dev/mmcblk0p2 loglevel=5
▶ Note that you can write to the kernel log from user space too. That’s useful when
your device’s serial console is being monitored for critical messages:
echo "<n>Debug info" > /dev/kmsg

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 Module utilities (1)

<module_name>: name of the module file without the trailing .ko

▶ modinfo <module_name> (for modules in /lib/modules)
modinfo <module_path>.ko
Gets information about a module without loading it: parameters, license,
description and dependencies.
▶ sudo insmod <module_path>.ko
Tries to load the given module. The full path to the module object file must be
given.

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 Understanding module loading issues

▶ When loading a module fails, insmod often doesn’t give you enough details!
▶ Details are often available in the kernel log.
▶ Example:
$ sudo insmod ./intr_monitor.ko
insmod: error inserting './intr_monitor.ko': -1 Device or resource busy
$ dmesg
[17549774.552000] Failed to register handler for irq channel 2

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 Module utilities (2)

▶ sudo modprobe <top_module_name>

Most common usage of modprobe: tries to load all the dependencies of the given
top module, and then this module. Lots of other options are available. modprobe
automatically looks in /lib/modules/<version>/ for the object file
corresponding to the given module name.
▶ lsmod
Displays the list of loaded modules
Compare its output with the contents of /proc/modules!

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 Module utilities (3)

▶ sudo rmmod <module_name>

Tries to remove the given module.
Will only be allowed if the module is no longer in use (for example, no more
processes opening a device file)
▶ sudo modprobe -r <top_module_name>
Tries to remove the given top module and all its no longer needed dependencies

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 Passing parameters to modules

▶ Find available parameters:

modinfo usb-storage
▶ Through insmod:
sudo insmod ./[Link] delay_use=0
▶ Through modprobe:
Set parameters in /etc/[Link] or in any file in /etc/modprobe.d/:
options usb-storage delay_use=0
▶ Through the kernel command line, when the driver is built statically into the
kernel:
usb-storage.delay_use=0
▶ usb-storage is the driver name
▶ delay_use is the driver parameter name. It specifies a delay before accessing a USB
storage device (useful for rotating devices).
▶ 0 is the driver parameter value

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 Check module parameter values

How to find/edit the current values for the parameters of a loaded module?
▶ Check /sys/module/<name>/parameters.
▶ There is one file per parameter, containing the parameter value.
▶ Also possible to change parameter values if these files have write permissions
(depends on the module code).
▶ Example:
echo 0 > /sys/module/usb_storage/parameters/delay_use

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 Developing kernel modules

Developing kernel
modules

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Hello module 1/2
// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0
/* hello.c */
#include <linux/init.h>
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/kernel.h>

static int __init hello_init(void)

{
pr_alert("Good morrow to this fair assembly.\n");
return 0;
}

static void __exit hello_exit(void)

{
pr_alert("Alas, poor world, what treasure hast thou lost!\n");
}

module_init(hello_init);
module_exit(hello_exit);
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Greeting module");
MODULE_AUTHOR("William Shakespeare");
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 Hello module 2/2

▶ Code marked as __init:

▶ Removed after initialization (static kernel or module.)
▶ See how init memory is reclaimed when the kernel finishes booting:
[ 2.689854] VFS: Mounted root (nfs filesystem) on device 0:15.
[ 2.698796] devtmpfs: mounted
[ 2.704277] Freeing unused kernel memory: 1024K
[ 2.710136] Run /sbin/init as init process

▶ Code marked as __exit:

▶ Discarded when module compiled statically into the kernel, or when module
unloading support is not enabled.
▶ Code of this example module available on [Link]

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 Hello module explanations

▶ Headers specific to the Linux kernel: linux/xxx.h

▶ No access to the usual C library, we’re doing kernel programming
▶ An initialization function
▶ Called when the module is loaded, returns an error code (0 on success, negative
value on failure)
▶ Declared by the module_init() macro: the name of the function doesn’t matter,
even though <modulename>_init() is a convention.
▶ A cleanup function
▶ Called when the module is unloaded
▶ Declared by the module_exit() macro.
▶ Metadata information declared using MODULE_LICENSE(), MODULE_DESCRIPTION()
and MODULE_AUTHOR()

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 Symbols exported to modules 1/2

▶ From a kernel module, only a limited number of kernel functions can be called
▶ Functions and variables have to be explicitly exported by the kernel to be visible
to a kernel module
▶ Two macros are used in the kernel to export functions and variables:
▶ EXPORT_SYMBOL(symbolname), which exports a function or variable to all modules
▶ EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL(symbolname), which exports a function or variable only to GPL
modules
▶ Linux 5.3: contains the same number of symbols with EXPORT_SYMBOL() and
symbols with EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL()
▶ A normal driver should not need any non-exported function.

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 Symbols exported to modules 2/2

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 Module license

▶ Several usages
▶ Used to restrict the kernel functions that the module can use if it isn’t a GPL
licensed module
▶ Difference between EXPORT_SYMBOL() and EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL()
▶ Used by kernel developers to identify issues coming from proprietary drivers, which
they can’t do anything about (“Tainted” kernel notice in kernel crashes and oopses).
▶ See admin-guide/tainted-kernels for details about tainted flag values.
▶ Useful for users to check that their system is 100% free (for the kernel, check
/proc/sys/kernel/tainted; run vrms to check installed packages)
▶ Values
▶ GPL compatible (see include/linux/license.h: GPL, GPL v2,
GPL and additional rights, Dual MIT/GPL, Dual BSD/GPL, Dual MPL/GPL)
▶ Proprietary

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 Compiling a module

Two solutions
▶ Out of tree, when the code is outside of the kernel source tree, in a different
directory
▶ Not integrated into the kernel configuration/compilation process
▶ Needs to be built separately
▶ The driver cannot be built statically, only as a module
▶ Inside the kernel tree
▶ Well integrated into the kernel configuration/compilation process
▶ The driver can be built statically or as a module

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 Compiling an out-of-tree module 1/2

▶ The below Makefile should be reusable for any single-file out-of-tree Linux
module
▶ The source file is hello.c
▶ Just run make to build the [Link] file

ifneq ($(KERNELRELEASE),)
obj-m := hello.o
else
KDIR := /path/to/kernel/sources

all:
<tab>$(MAKE) -C $(KDIR) M=$$PWD
endif

▶ KDIR: kernel source or headers directory (see next slides)

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 Compiling an out-of-tree module 2/2

▶ The module Makefile is interpreted with KERNELRELEASE undefined, so it calls

the kernel Makefile, passing the module directory in the M variable
▶ The kernel Makefile knows how to compile a module, and thanks to the M
variable, knows where the Makefile for our module is. This module Makefile is
then interpreted with KERNELRELEASE defined, so the kernel sees the obj-m
definition.
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 Modules and kernel version

▶ To be compiled, a kernel module needs access to kernel headers, containing the

definitions of functions, types and constants.
▶ Two solutions
▶ Full kernel sources (configured + make modules_prepare)
▶ Only kernel headers (linux-headers-* packages in Debian/Ubuntu distributions, or
directory created by make headers_install).
▶ The sources or headers must be configured (.config file)
▶ Many macros or functions depend on the configuration
▶ You also need the kernel Makefile, the scripts/ directory, and a few others.
▶ A kernel module compiled against version X of kernel headers will not load in
kernel version Y
▶ modprobe / insmod will say Invalid module format

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 New driver in kernel sources 1/2

▶ To add a new driver to the kernel sources:

▶ Add your new source file to the appropriate source directory. Example:
drivers/usb/serial/navman.c
▶ Single file drivers in the common case, even if the file is several thousand lines of
code big. Only really big drivers are split in several files or have their own directory.
▶ Describe the configuration interface for your new driver by adding the following lines
to the Kconfig file in this directory:

config USB_SERIAL_NAVMAN
tristate "USB Navman GPS device"
depends on USB_SERIAL
help
To compile this driver as a module, choose M
here: the module will be called navman.

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 New driver in kernel sources 2/2

▶ Add a line in the Makefile file based on the Kconfig setting:

obj-$(CONFIG_USB_SERIAL_NAVMAN) += navman.o
▶ It tells the kernel build system to build navman.c when the USB_SERIAL_NAVMAN
option is enabled. It works both if compiled statically or as a module.
▶ Run make xconfig and see your new options!
▶ Run make and your new files are compiled!
▶ See kbuild/ for details and more elaborate examples like drivers with several source
files, or drivers in their own subdirectory, etc.

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 Hello module with parameters 1/2

// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0
/* hello_param.c */
#include <linux/init.h>
#include <linux/module.h>

MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");

static char *whom = "world";

module_param(whom, charp, 0644);
MODULE_PARM_DESC(whom, "Recipient of the hello message");

static int howmany = 1;

module_param(howmany, int, 0644);
MODULE_PARM_DESC(howmany, "Number of greetings");

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 Hello module with parameters 2/2

static int __init hello_init(void)

{
int i;

for (i = 0; i < howmany; i++)

pr_alert("(%d) Hello, %s\n", i, whom);
return 0;
}

static void __exit hello_exit(void)

{
pr_alert("Goodbye, cruel %s\n", whom);
}

module_init(hello_init);
module_exit(hello_exit);
Thanks to Jonathan Corbet for the examples
Source code available on: [Link]
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 Declaring a module parameter

module_param(
name, /* name of an already defined variable */
type, /* standard types (different from C types) are:
* byte, short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong
* charp: a character pointer
* bool: a bool, values 0/1, y/n, Y/N.
* invbool: the above, only sense-reversed (N = true). */
perm /* for /sys/module/<module_name>/parameters/<param>,
* 0: no such module parameter value file */
);

/* Example: drivers/block/loop.c */
static int max_loop;
module_param(max_loop, int, 0444);
MODULE_PARM_DESC(max_loop, "Maximum number of loop devices");
Modules parameter arrays are also possible with module_param_array().
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 Practical lab - Writing modules

▶ Create, compile and load your first module

▶ Add module parameters
▶ Access kernel internals from your module

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 Useful general-purpose kernel APIs

Useful general-purpose
kernel APIs

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Memory/string utilities

▶ In include/linux/string.h
▶ Memory-related: memset(), memcpy(), memmove(), memscan(), memcmp(), memchr()
▶ String-related: strcpy(), strcat(), strcmp(), strchr(), strrchr(), strlen()
and variants
▶ Allocate and copy a string: kstrdup(), kstrndup()
▶ Allocate and copy a memory area: kmemdup()
▶ In include/linux/kernel.h
▶ String to int conversion: simple_strtoul(), simple_strtol(),
simple_strtoull(), simple_strtoll()
▶ Other string functions: sprintf(), sscanf()

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 Linked lists

▶ Convenient linked-list facility in include/linux/list.h

▶ Used in thousands of places in the kernel
▶ Add a struct list_head member to the structure whose instances will be part of
the linked list. It is usually named node when each instance needs to only be part
of a single list.
▶ Define the list with the LIST_HEAD() macro for a global list, or define a
struct list_head element and initialize it with INIT_LIST_HEAD() for lists
embedded in a structure.
▶ Then use the list_*() API to manipulate the list
▶ Add elements: list_add(), list_add_tail()
▶ Remove, move or replace elements: list_del(), list_move(), list_move_tail(),
list_replace()
▶ Test the list: list_empty()
▶ Iterate over the list: list_for_each_*() family of macros

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 Linked lists examples 1/2

From include/soc/at91/atmel_tcb.h
/*
* Definition of a list element, with a
* struct list_head member
*/
struct atmel_tc
{
/* some members */
struct list_head node;
};

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 Linked lists examples 2/2

From drivers/misc/atmel_tclib.c
/* Define the global list */
static LIST_HEAD(tc_list);

static int __init tc_probe(struct platform_device *pdev) {

struct atmel_tc *tc;
tc = kzalloc(sizeof(struct atmel_tc), GFP_KERNEL);
/* Add an element to the list */
list_add_tail(&tc->node, &tc_list);
}

struct atmel_tc *atmel_tc_alloc(unsigned block, const char *name)

{
struct atmel_tc *tc;
/* Iterate over the list elements */
list_for_each_entry(tc, &tc_list, node) {
/* Do something with tc */
}
[...]
}

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 Linux device and driver model

Linux device and driver

model

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Linux device and driver model

Introduction

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 The need for a device model?

▶ The Linux kernel runs on a wide range of architectures and hardware platforms,
and therefore needs to maximize the reusability of code between platforms.
▶ For example, we want the same USB device driver to be usable on a x86 PC, or
an ARM platform, even though the USB controllers used on these platforms are
different.
▶ This requires a clean organization of the code, with the device drivers separated
from the controller drivers, the hardware description separated from the drivers
themselves, etc.
▶ This is what the Linux kernel Device Model allows, in addition to other
advantages covered in this section.

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 Kernel and Device Drivers

In Linux, a driver is always interfacing with:

▶ a framework that allows the driver to expose the
hardware features in a generic way.
▶ a bus infrastructure, part of the device model, to
detect/communicate with the hardware.
This section focuses on the bus infrastructure, while kernel
frameworks are covered later in this training.

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 Device Model data structures

▶ The device model is organized around three main data structures:

▶ The struct bus_type structure, which represents one type of bus (USB, PCI, I2C,
etc.)
▶ The struct device_driver structure, which represents one driver capable of
handling certain devices on a certain bus.
▶ The struct device structure, which represents one device connected to a bus
▶ The kernel uses inheritance to create more specialized versions of
struct device_driver and struct device for each bus subsystem.
▶ In order to explore the device model, we will
▶ First look at a popular bus that offers dynamic enumeration, the USB bus
▶ Continue by studying how buses that do not offer dynamic enumeration are handled.

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 Bus Drivers

▶ The first component of the device model is the bus driver

▶ One bus driver for each type of bus: USB, PCI, SPI, MMC, I2C, etc.
▶ It is responsible for
▶ Registering the bus type (struct bus_type)
▶ Allowing the registration of adapter drivers (USB controllers, I2C adapters, etc.),
able to detect the connected devices (if possible), and providing a communication
mechanism with the devices
▶ Allowing the registration of device drivers (USB devices, I2C devices, PCI devices,
etc.), managing the devices
▶ Matching the device drivers against the devices detected by the adapter drivers.
▶ Provides an API to implement both adapter drivers and device drivers
▶ Defining driver and device specific structures, mainly struct usb_driver and
struct usb_interface

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 Linux device and driver model

Example of the USB bus

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 Example: USB Bus 1/3

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 Example: USB Bus 2/3

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 Example: USB Bus 3/3

▶ Core infrastructure (bus driver)

▶ drivers/usb/core/
▶ struct bus_type is defined in drivers/usb/core/driver.c and registered in
drivers/usb/core/usb.c
▶ Adapter drivers
▶ drivers/usb/host/
▶ For EHCI, UHCI, OHCI, XHCI, and their implementations on various systems
(Microchip, IXP, Xilinx, OMAP, Samsung, PXA, etc.)
▶ Device drivers
▶ Everywhere in the kernel tree, classified by their type (Example: drivers/net/usb/)

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 Example of Device Driver

▶ To illustrate how drivers are implemented to work with the

device model, we will study the source code of a driver for a
USB network card
▶ It is USB device, so it has to be a USB device driver
▶ It exposes a network device, so it has to be a network driver
▶ Most drivers rely on a bus infrastructure (here, USB) and
register themselves in a framework (here, network)
▶ We will only look at the device driver side, and not the
adapter driver side
▶ The driver we will look at is drivers/net/usb/rtl8150.c

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 Device Identifiers

▶ Defines the set of devices that this driver can manage, so that the USB core
knows for which devices this driver should be used
▶ The MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE() macro allows depmod (run by
make modules_install) to extract the relationship between device identifiers and
drivers, so that drivers can be loaded automatically by udev. See
/lib/modules/$(uname -r)/modules.{alias,usbmap}

static struct usb_device_id rtl8150_table[] = {

{ USB_DEVICE(VENDOR_ID_REALTEK, PRODUCT_ID_RTL8150) },
{ USB_DEVICE(VENDOR_ID_MELCO, PRODUCT_ID_LUAKTX) },
{ USB_DEVICE(VENDOR_ID_MICRONET, PRODUCT_ID_SP128AR) },
{ USB_DEVICE(VENDOR_ID_LONGSHINE, PRODUCT_ID_LCS8138TX) },
[...]
{}
};
MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE(usb, rtl8150_table);

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 Instantiation of usb_driver

▶ struct usb_driver is a structure defined by the USB core. Each USB device
driver must instantiate it, and register itself to the USB core using this structure
▶ This structure inherits from struct device_driver, which is defined by the
device model.
static struct usb_driver rtl8150_driver = {
.name = "rtl8150",
.probe = rtl8150_probe,
.disconnect = rtl8150_disconnect,
.id_table = rtl8150_table,
.suspend = rtl8150_suspend,
.resume = rtl8150_resume
};

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 Driver registration and unregistration
▶ When the driver is loaded / unloaded, it must register / unregister itself to / from the
USB core
▶ Done using usb_register() and usb_deregister(), provided by the USB core.

static int __init usb_rtl8150_init(void)

{
return usb_register(&rtl8150_driver);
}

static void __exit usb_rtl8150_exit(void)

{
usb_deregister(&rtl8150_driver);
}

module_init(usb_rtl8150_init);
module_exit(usb_rtl8150_exit);

▶ All this code is actually replaced by a call to the module_usb_driver() macro:

module_usb_driver(rtl8150_driver);

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 At Initialization

▶ The USB adapter driver that corresponds to the USB controller of the system
registers itself to the USB core
▶ The rtl8150 USB device driver registers itself to the USB core

▶ The USB core now knows the association between the vendor/product IDs of
rtl8150 and the struct usb_driver structure of this driver

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 When a device is detected

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 Probe Method

▶ Invoked for each device bound to a driver

▶ The probe() method receives as argument a structure describing the device,
usually specialized by the bus infrastructure (struct pci_dev,
struct usb_interface, etc.)
▶ This function is responsible for
▶ Initializing the device, mapping I/O memory, registering the interrupt handlers. The
bus infrastructure provides methods to get the addresses, interrupt numbers and
other device-specific information.
▶ Registering the device to the proper kernel framework, for example the network
infrastructure.

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 Example: probe() and disconnect() methods

static int rtl8150_probe(struct usb_interface *intf, static void rtl8150_disconnect(struct usb_interface *intf)
const struct usb_device_id *id) {
{ rtl8150_t *dev = usb_get_intfdata(intf);
rtl8150_t *dev;
struct net_device *netdev; usb_set_intfdata(intf, NULL);
if (dev) {
netdev = alloc_etherdev(sizeof(rtl8150_t)); set_bit(RTL8150_UNPLUG, &dev->flags);
[...] tasklet_kill(&dev->tl);
dev = netdev_priv(netdev); unregister_netdev(dev->netdev);
tasklet_init(&dev->tl, rx_fixup, (unsigned long)dev); unlink_all_urbs(dev);
spin_lock_init(&dev->rx_pool_lock); free_all_urbs(dev);
[...] free_skb_pool(dev);
netdev->netdev_ops = &rtl8150_netdev_ops; if (dev->rx_skb)
alloc_all_urbs(dev); dev_kfree_skb(dev->rx_skb);
[...] kfree(dev->intr_buff);
usb_set_intfdata(intf, dev); free_netdev(dev->netdev);
SET_NETDEV_DEV(netdev, &intf->dev); }
register_netdev(netdev); }

return 0;
}

Source: drivers/net/usb/rtl8150.c

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 The Model is Recursive

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 Linux device and driver model

Platform drivers

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 Non-discoverable buses

▶ On embedded systems, devices are often not connected through a bus allowing
enumeration, hotplugging, and providing unique identifiers for devices.
▶ For example, the devices on I2C buses or SPI buses, or the devices directly part of
the system-on-chip.
▶ However, we still want all of these devices to be part of the device model.
▶ Such devices, instead of being dynamically detected, must be statically described
in either:
▶ The kernel source code
▶ The Device Tree, a hardware description file used on some architectures.
▶ BIOS ACPI tables (x86/PC architecture)

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 Platform devices

▶ Amongst the non-discoverable devices, a huge family are the devices that are
directly part of a system-on-chip: UART controllers, Ethernet controllers, SPI or
I2C controllers, graphic or audio devices, etc.
▶ In the Linux kernel, a special bus, called the platform bus has been created to
handle such devices.
▶ It supports platform drivers that handle platform devices.
▶ It works like any other bus (USB, PCI), except that devices are enumerated
statically instead of being discovered dynamically.

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 Implementation of a Platform Driver (1)

The driver implements a struct platform_driver structure (example taken from

drivers/tty/serial/imx.c, simplified)
static struct platform_driver serial_imx_driver = {
.probe = serial_imx_probe,
.remove = serial_imx_remove,
.id_table = imx_uart_devtype,
.driver = {
.name = "imx-uart",
.of_match_table = imx_uart_dt_ids,
.pm = &imx_serial_port_pm_ops,
},
};

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 Implementation of a Platform Driver (2)

... and registers its driver to the platform driver infrastructure

static int __init imx_serial_init(void) {
ret = platform_driver_register(&serial_imx_driver);
}

static void __exit imx_serial_cleanup(void) {

platform_driver_unregister(&serial_imx_driver);
}

module_init(imx_serial_init);
module_exit(imx_serial_cleanup);

Most drivers actually use the module_platform_driver() macro when they do

nothing special in init() and exit() functions:
module_platform_driver(serial_imx_driver);

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 Platform Device Instantiation: old style (1/2)

▶ As platform devices cannot be detected dynamically, they are defined statically

▶ By direct instantiation of struct platform_device structures, as done on a few old
ARM platforms. Definition done in the board-specific or SoC specific code.
▶ By using a device tree, as done on Power PC (and on most ARM platforms) from
which struct platform_device structures are created
▶ Example on ARM, where the instantiation was done in
arch/arm/mach-imx/mx1ads.c
static struct platform_device imx_uart1_device = {
.name = "imx-uart",
.id = 0,
.num_resources = ARRAY_SIZE(imx_uart1_resources),
.resource = imx_uart1_resources,
.dev = {
.platform_data = &uart_pdata,
}
};

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 Platform device instantiation: old style (2/2)

▶ The device was part of a list

static struct platform_device *devices[] __initdata = {

&cs89x0_device,
&imx_uart1_device,
&imx_uart2_device,
};

▶ And the list of devices was added to the system during board initialization

static void __init mx1ads_init(void)

{
[...]
platform_add_devices(devices, ARRAY_SIZE(devices));
}

MACHINE_START(MX1ADS, "Freescale MX1ADS")

[...]
.init_machine = mx1ads_init,
MACHINE_END

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 The Resource Mechanism

▶ Each device managed by a particular driver typically uses different hardware

resources: addresses for the I/O registers, DMA channels, IRQ lines, etc.
▶ Such information can be represented using struct resource, and an array of
struct resource is associated to a struct platform_device
▶ Allows a driver to be instantiated for multiple devices functioning similarly, but
with different addresses, IRQs, etc.

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 Declaring resources (old style)

static struct resource imx_uart1_resources[] = {

[0] = {
.start = 0x00206000,
.end = 0x002060FF,
.flags = IORESOURCE_MEM,
},
[1] = {
.start = (UART1_MINT_RX),
.end = (UART1_MINT_RX),
.flags = IORESOURCE_IRQ,
},
};

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 Using Resources (old style)

▶ When a struct platform_device was added to the system using

platform_add_devices(), the probe() method of the platform driver was called
▶ This method is responsible for initializing the hardware, registering the device to
the proper framework (in our case, the serial driver framework)
▶ The platform driver has access to the I/O resources:

res = platform_get_resource(pdev, IORESOURCE_MEM, 0);

base = ioremap(res->start, PAGE_SIZE);
sport->rxirq = platform_get_irq(pdev, 0);

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 platform_data Mechanism (old style)

▶ In addition to the well-defined resources, many drivers require driver-specific

information for each platform device
▶ Such information could be passed using the platform_data field of
struct device (from which struct platform_device inherits)
▶ As it is a void * pointer, it could be used to pass any type of information.
▶ Typically, each driver defines a structure to pass information through
struct platform_data

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 platform_data example 1/2

▶ The [Link] serial port driver defines the following structure to be passed through
struct platform_data
struct imxuart_platform_data {
int (*init)(struct platform_device *pdev);
void (*exit)(struct platform_device *pdev);
unsigned int flags;
void (*irda_enable)(int enable);
unsigned int irda_inv_rx:1;
unsigned int irda_inv_tx:1;
unsigned short transceiver_delay;
};

▶ The MX1ADS board code instantiated such a structure

static struct imxuart_platform_data uart_pdata = {
.flags = IMXUART_HAVE_RTSCTS,
};

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 platform_data Example 2/2
▶ The uart_pdata structure was associated to the struct platform_device
structure in the MX1ADS board file (the real code was slightly more complicated)
struct platform_device mx1ads_uart1 = {
.name = "imx-uart",
.dev {
.platform_data = &uart_pdata,
},
.resource = imx_uart1_resources,
[...]
};

▶ The driver can access the platform data:

static int serial_imx_probe(struct platform_device *pdev)
{
struct imxuart_platform_data *pdata;
pdata = pdev->dev.platform_data;
if (pdata && (pdata->flags & IMXUART_HAVE_RTSCTS))
sport->have_rtscts = 1;
[...]
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 Device Tree

▶ On many embedded architectures, manual instantiation of platform devices was

considered to be too verbose and not easily maintainable.
▶ Such architectures have moved, to use the Device Tree.
▶ It is a tree of nodes that models the hierarchy of devices in the system, from the
devices inside the processor to the devices on the board.
▶ Each node can have a number of properties describing various properties of the
devices: addresses, interrupts, clocks, etc.
▶ At boot time, the kernel is given a compiled version, the Device Tree Blob,
which is parsed to instantiate all the devices described in the DT.
▶ On ARM, they are located in arch/arm/boot/dts/.

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 Device Tree example

uart0: serial@44e09000 {
compatible = "ti,omap3-uart";
ti,hwmods = "uart1";
clock-frequency = <48000000>;
reg = <0x44e09000 0x2000>;
interrupts = <72>;
status = "disabled";
};

▶ serial@44e09000 is the node name

▶ uart0 is a label, that can be referred to in other parts of the DT as &uart0
▶ other lines are properties. Their values are usually strings, list of integers, or
references to other nodes.

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 Device Tree inheritance (1/2)

▶ Each particular hardware platform has its own device tree.

▶ However, several hardware platforms use the same processor, and often various
processors in the same family share a number of similarities.
▶ To allow this, a device tree file can include another one. The trees described by
the including file overlays the tree described by the included file. This can be
done:
▶ Either by using the /include/ statement provided by the Device Tree language.
▶ Either by using the #include statement, which requires calling the C preprocessor
before parsing the Device Tree.
Linux currently uses either one technique or the other (different from one ARM
subarchitecture to another, for example).

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 Device Tree inheritance (2/2)

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 Device Tree: compatible string
▶ With the device tree, a device is bound to the corresponding driver using the compatible
string.
▶ The of_match_table field of struct device_driver lists the compatible strings
supported by the driver. drivers/tty/serial/omap-serial.c example:
#if defined(CONFIG_OF)
static const struct of_device_id omap_serial_of_match[] = {
{ .compatible = "ti,omap2-uart" },
{ .compatible = "ti,omap3-uart" },
{ .compatible = "ti,omap4-uart" },
{},
};
MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE(of, omap_serial_of_match);
#endif
static struct platform_driver serial_omap_driver = {
.probe = serial_omap_probe,
.remove = serial_omap_remove,
.driver = {
.name = DRIVER_NAME,
.pm = &serial_omap_dev_pm_ops,
.of_match_table = of_match_ptr(omap_serial_of_match),
},
};

▶ Note: the of_match_ptr() macro instantiates to NULL when CONFIG_OF is not set.
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 Device Tree Resources

▶ The drivers will use the same mechanism that we saw previously to retrieve basic
information: interrupts numbers, physical addresses, etc.
▶ The available resources list will be built up by the kernel at boot time from the
device tree, so that you don’t need to make any unnecessary lookups to the DT
when loading your driver.
▶ Any additional information will be specific to a driver or the class it belongs to,
defining the bindings.

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 Device Tree design principles

▶ Describe hardware (how the hardware is), not configuration (how I choose to
use the hardware)
▶ OS-agnostic
▶ For a given piece of HW, Device Tree should be the same for U-Boot, FreeBSD or
Linux
▶ There should be no need to change the Device Tree when updating the OS
▶ Describe integration of hardware components, not the internals of hardware
components
▶ The details of how a specific device/IP block is working is handled by code in device
drivers
▶ The Device Tree describes how the device/IP block is connected/integrated with the
rest of the system: IRQ lines, DMA channels, clocks, reset lines, etc.
▶ Like all beautiful design principles, these principles are sometimes violated.

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 Device Tree specifications

▶ How to write the correct nodes/properties to describe a

given hardware platform ?
▶ DeviceTree Specifications → base Device Tree syntax
+ number of standard properties.
▶ [Link]
▶ Not sufficient to describe the wide variety of hardware.
▶ Device Tree Bindings → documents that each specify
how a piece of HW should be described
▶ Documentation/devicetree/bindings/ in Linux kernel
sources
▶ Reviewed by DT bindings maintainer team
▶ Legacy: human readable documents
▶ New norm: YAML-written specifications

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 Device Tree binding: old style

Documentation/devicetree/bindings/mtd/spear_smi.txt

* SPEAr SMI Example:

smi: flash@fc000000 {
Required properties: compatible = "st,spear600-smi";
- compatible : "st,spear600-smi" #address-cells = <1>;
- reg : Address range of the mtd chip #size-cells = <1>;
- #address-cells, #size-cells : Must be present if the device has sub-nodes reg = <0xfc000000 0x1000>;
representing partitions. interrupt-parent = <&vic1>;
interrupts = <12>;
- interrupts: Should contain the STMMAC interrupts clock-rate = <50000000>; /* 50MHz */
- clock-rate : Functional clock rate of SMI in Hz
flash@f8000000 {
Optional properties: st,smi-fast-mode;
- st,smi-fast-mode : Flash supports read in fast mode ...
};
};

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 Device Tree binding: YAML style
Documentation/devicetree/bindings/i2c/st,[Link]

# SPDX-License-Identifier: (GPL-2.0-only OR BSD-2-Clause) clocks:

%YAML 1.2 maxItems: 1
---
$id: [Link] dmas:
$schema: [Link] items:
- description: RX DMA Channel phandle
title: I2C controller embedded in STMicroelectronics STM32 I2C platform - description: TX DMA Channel phandle

maintainers: ...
- Pierre-Yves MORDRET <[Link]@[Link]>
clock-frequency:
properties: description: Desired I2C bus clock frequency in Hz. If not specified,
compatible: the default 100 kHz frequency will be used.
enum: For STM32F7, STM32H7 and STM32MP1 SoCs, if timing
- st,stm32f4-i2c parameters match, the bus clock frequency can be from
- st,stm32f7-i2c 1Hz to 1MHz.
- st,stm32mp15-i2c default: 100000
minimum: 1
reg: maximum: 1000000
maxItems: 1
required:
interrupts: - compatible
items: - reg
- description: interrupt ID for I2C event - interrupts
- description: interrupt ID for I2C error - resets
- clocks
resets:
maxItems: 1

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 Device Tree binding: YAML style example

examples:
- |
//Example 3 (with st,stm32mp15-i2c compatible on stm32mp)
#include <dt-bindings/interrupt-controller/arm-gic.h>
#include <dt-bindings/clock/stm32mp1-clks.h>
#include <dt-bindings/reset/stm32mp1-resets.h>
i2c@40013000 {
compatible = "st,stm32mp15-i2c";
#address-cells = <1>;
#size-cells = <0>;
reg = <0x40013000 0x400>;
interrupts = <GIC_SPI 33 IRQ_TYPE_LEVEL_HIGH>,
<GIC_SPI 34 IRQ_TYPE_LEVEL_HIGH>;
clocks = <&rcc I2C2_K>;
resets = <&rcc I2C2_R>;
i2c-scl-rising-time-ns = <185>;
i2c-scl-falling-time-ns = <20>;
st,syscfg-fmp = <&syscfg 0x4 0x2>;
};

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 Validating Device Tree in Linux

▶ dtc only does syntaxic validation

▶ YAML bindings allow to do semantic validation
▶ Linux kernel make rules:
▶ make dt_binding_check
verify that YAML bindings are valid
▶ make dtbs_check
validate DTs currently enabled against YAML bindings
▶ make DT_SCHEMA_FILES=Documentation/devicetree/bindings/trivial-
[Link] dtbs_check
validate DTs against a specific YAML binding

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 sysfs

▶ The bus, device, drivers, etc. structures are internal to the kernel
▶ The sysfs virtual filesystem offers a mechanism to export such information to
user space
▶ Used for example by udev to provide automatic module loading, firmware loading,
mounting of external media, etc.
▶ sysfs is usually mounted in /sys
▶ /sys/bus/ contains the list of buses
▶ /sys/devices/ contains the list of devices
▶ /sys/class enumerates devices by the framework they are registered to (net,
input, block...), whatever bus they are connected to. Very useful!
▶ Take your time to explore /sys on your workstation.

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 References

▶ Device Tree 101 webinar, Thomas Petazzoni

(2021):
Slides: [Link]
tree-101-webinar-slides-and-videos/
Video: [Link]
▶ Kernel documentation
▶ driver-api/driver-model/
▶ devicetree/
▶ filesystems/sysfs
▶ [Link]
▶ The kernel source code
▶ Full of examples of other drivers!

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 Introduction to the I2C subsystem

Introduction to the I2C

subsystem

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 What is I2C?

▶ A very commonly used low-speed bus to connect on-board and external devices to
the processor.
▶ Uses only two wires: SDA for the data, SCL for the clock.
▶ It is a master/slave bus: only the master can initiate transactions, and slaves can
only reply to transactions initiated by masters.
▶ In a Linux system, the I2C controller embedded in the processor is typically the
master, controlling the bus.
▶ Each slave device is identified by an I2C address (you can’t have 2 devices with
the same address on the same bus). Each transaction initiated by the master
contains this address, which allows the relevant slave to recognize that it should
reply to this particular transaction.

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 An I2C bus example

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 The I2C bus driver

▶ Like all bus subsystems, the I2C bus driver is responsible for:
▶ Providing an API to implement I2C controller drivers
▶ Providing an API to implement I2C device drivers, in kernel space
▶ Providing an API to implement I2C device drivers, in user space
▶ The core of the I2C bus driver is located in drivers/i2c/.
▶ The I2C controller drivers are located in drivers/i2c/busses/.
▶ The I2C device drivers are located throughout drivers/, depending on the
framework used to expose the devices (e.g. drivers/input/ for input devices).

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 Registering an I2C device driver

▶ Like all bus subsystems, the I2C subsystem defines a struct i2c_driver that
inherits from struct device_driver, and which must be instantiated and
registered by each I2C device driver.
▶ As usual, this structure points to the ->probe() and ->remove() functions.
▶ It also contains an id_table, used for non-DT based probing of I2C devices.
▶ A ->probe_new() function can replace ->probe() when no id_table is provided.
▶ The i2c_add_driver() and i2c_del_driver() functions are used to
register/unregister the driver.
▶ If the driver doesn’t do anything else in its init()/exit() functions, it is advised
to use the module_i2c_driver() macro instead.

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 Registering an I2C device driver: example
static const struct i2c_device_id adxl345_i2c_id[] = {
{ "adxl345", ADXL345 },
{ "adxl375", ADXL375 },
{ }
};

MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE(i2c, adxl345_i2c_id);

static const struct of_device_id adxl345_of_match[] = {

{ .compatible = "adi,adxl345" },
{ .compatible = "adi,adxl375" },
{ },
};

MODULE_DEVICE_TABLE(of, adxl345_of_match);

static struct i2c_driver adxl345_i2c_driver = {

.driver = {
.name = "adxl345_i2c",
.of_match_table = adxl345_of_match,
},
.probe = adxl345_i2c_probe,
.remove = adxl345_i2c_remove,
.id_table = adxl345_i2c_id,
};

module_i2c_driver(adxl345_i2c_driver);

From drivers/iio/accel/adxl345_i2c.c
- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 179/467
 Registering an I2C device: non-DT

▶ On non-DT platforms, the struct i2c_board_info structure allows to describe

how an I2C device is connected to a board.
▶ Such structures are normally defined with the I2C_BOARD_INFO() helper macro.
▶ Takes as argument the device name and the slave address of the device on the bus.
▶ An array of such structures is registered on a per-bus basis using
i2c_register_board_info(), when the platform is initialized.

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 Registering an I2C device, non-DT example

static struct i2c_board_info __initdata em7210_i2c_devices[] = {

{
I2C_BOARD_INFO("rs5c372a", 0x32),
},
};

...

static void __init em7210_init_machine(void)

{
register_iop32x_gpio();
platform_device_register(&em7210_serial_device);
platform_device_register(&iop3xx_i2c0_device);
platform_device_register(&iop3xx_i2c1_device);
platform_device_register(&em7210_flash_device);
platform_device_register(&iop3xx_dma_0_channel);
platform_device_register(&iop3xx_dma_1_channel);

i2c_register_board_info(0, em7210_i2c_devices,
ARRAY_SIZE(em7210_i2c_devices));
}

From arch/arm/mach-iop32x/em7210.c

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 Registering an I2C device, in the DT

▶ In the Device Tree, the I2C controller device is typically defined in the .dtsi file
that describes the processor.
▶ Normally defined with status = "disabled".
▶ At the board/platform level:
▶ the I2C controller device is enabled (status = "okay")
▶ the I2C bus frequency is defined, using the clock-frequency property.
▶ the I2C devices on the bus are described as children of the I2C controller node,
where the reg property gives the I2C slave address on the bus.
▶ See the binding for the corresponding driver for a specification of the expected DT
properties. Example: Documentation/devicetree/bindings/i2c/[Link]

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 Registering an I2C device, DT example (1/2)

Definition of the I2C controller

i2c0: i2c@01c2ac00 {
compatible = "allwinner,sun7i-a20-i2c",
"allwinner,sun4i-a10-i2c";
reg = <0x01c2ac00 0x400>;
interrupts = <GIC_SPI 7 IRQ_TYPE_LEVEL_HIGH>;
clocks = <&apb1_gates 0>;
status = "disabled";
#address-cells = <1>;
#size-cells = <0>;
};

From arch/arm/boot/dts/[Link]

#address-cells: number of 32-bit values needed to encode the address fields

#size-cells: number of 32-bit values needed to encode the size fields
See details in [Link]
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 Registering an I2C device, DT example (2/2)

Definition of the I2C device

&i2c0 {
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&i2c0_pins_a>;
status = "okay";

axp209: pmic@34 {
compatible = "x-powers,axp209";
reg = <0x34>;
interrupt-parent = <&nmi_intc>;
interrupts = <0 IRQ_TYPE_LEVEL_LOW>;

interrupt-controller;
#interrupt-cells = <1>;
};
};

From arch/arm/boot/dts/[Link]
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 probe_new() / probe() and remove()

▶ The ->probe_new() function is responsible for initializing the device and

registering it in the appropriate kernel framework. It receives as argument:
▶ A struct i2c_client pointer, which represents the I2C device itself. This structure
inherits from struct device.
▶ Alternatively, the ->probe() function receives as arguments:
▶ A similar struct i2c_client pointer.
▶ A struct i2c_device_id pointer, which points to the I2C device ID entry that
matched the device that is being probed.
▶ The ->remove() function is responsible for unregistering the device from the
kernel framework and shut it down. It receives as argument:
▶ The same struct i2c_client pointer that was passed as argument to
->probe_new() or ->probe()

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 Probe example

static int da311_probe(struct i2c_client *client,

const struct i2c_device_id *id)
{
struct iio_dev *indio_dev; // framework structure
da311_data *data; // per device structure
...
// Allocate framework structure with per device struct inside
indio_dev = devm_iio_device_alloc(&client->dev, sizeof(*data));
data = iio_priv(indio_dev);
data->client = client;
i2c_set_clientdata(client, indio_dev);
// Prepare device and initialize indio_dev
...
// Register device to framework
ret = iio_device_register(indio_dev);
...
return ret;
}

From drivers/iio/accel/da311.c
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 Remove example

static int da311_remove(struct i2c_client *client)

{
struct iio_dev *indio_dev = i2c_get_clientdata(client);
// Unregister device from framework
iio_device_unregister(indio_dev);
return da311_enable(client, false);
}

From drivers/iio/accel/da311.c

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 Practical lab - Linux device model for an I2C driver

▶ Modify the Device Tree to instantiate an I2C

device.
▶ Implement a driver that registers as an I2C
driver.
▶ Make sure that the probe/remove functions are
called when there is a device/driver match.
▶ Explore the sysfs entries related to your driver
and device.

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 Communicating with the I2C device: raw API

The most basic API to communicate with the I2C device provides functions to either
send or receive data:
▶ int i2c_master_send(const struct i2c_client *client, const char
*buf, int count);
Sends the contents of buf to the client.
▶ int i2c_master_recv(const struct i2c_client *client, char *buf, int
count);
Receives count bytes from the client, and store them into buf.
Both functions return a negative error number in case of failure, otherwise the number
of transmitted bytes.

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 Communicating with the I2C device: message transfer

The message transfer API allows to describe transfers that consists of several
messages, with each message being a transaction in one direction:
▶ int i2c_transfer(struct i2c_adapter *adap, struct i2c_msg *msgs, int
num);
▶ The struct i2c_adapter pointer can be found by using client->adapter
▶ The struct i2c_msg structure defines the length, location, and direction of the
message.

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 I2C: message transfer example

static int st1232_ts_read_data(struct st1232_ts_data *ts)

{
...
struct i2c_client *client = ts->client;
struct i2c_msg msg[2];
int error;
...
u8 start_reg = ts->chip_info->start_reg;
u8 *buf = ts->read_buf;

/* read touchscreen data */

msg[0].addr = client->addr;
msg[0].flags = 0;
msg[0].len = 1;
msg[0].buf = &start_reg;

msg[1].addr = ts->client->addr;
msg[1].flags = I2C_M_RD;
msg[1].len = ts->read_buf_len;
msg[1].buf = buf;

error = i2c_transfer(client->adapter, msg, 2);

...
}

From drivers/input/touchscreen/st1232.c
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 SMBus calls

▶ SMBus is a subset of the I2C protocol.

▶ It defines a standard set of transactions, such as reading/writing from a
register-like interface.
▶ Linux provides SMBus functions that should preferably be used instead of the raw
API with devices supporting SMBus.
▶ Such a driver will be usable with both SMBus and I2C adapters
▶ SMBus adapters cannot send raw I2C commands
▶ I2C adapters will receive an SMBus-like command crafted by the core
▶ Example: the i2c_smbus_read_byte_data() function allows to read one byte of
data from a device “register”.
▶ It does the following operations:
S Addr Wr [A] Comm [A] Sr Addr Rd [A] [Data] NA P
▶ Which means it first writes a one byte data command (Comm, which is the
“register” address), and then reads back one byte of data ([Data]).
▶ See i2c/smbus-protocol for details.
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 List of SMBus functions

▶ Read/write one byte

▶ s32 i2c_smbus_read_byte(const struct i2c_client *client);
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_write_byte(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 value);

▶ Write a command byte, and read or write one byte

▶ s32 i2c_smbus_read_byte_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command);
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_write_byte_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u8 value);

▶ Write a command byte, and read or write one word

▶ s32 i2c_smbus_read_word_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command);
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_write_word_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u16 value);

▶ Write a command byte, and read or write a block of data (max 32 bytes)
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_read_block_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u8 *values);
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_write_block_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u8 length, const u8 *values);

▶ Write a command byte, and read or write a block of data (no limit)
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_read_i2c_block_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u8 length, u8 *values);
▶ s32 i2c_smbus_write_i2c_block_data(const struct i2c_client *client, u8 command, u8 length, const u8 *values);

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 I2C functionality

▶ Not all I2C controllers support all functionalities.

▶ The I2C controller drivers therefore tell the I2C core which functionalities they
support.
▶ An I2C device driver must check that the functionalities they need are provided by
the I2C controller in use on the system.
▶ The i2c_check_functionality() function allows to make such a check.
▶ Examples of functionalities: I2C_FUNC_I2C to be able to use the raw I2C
functions, I2C_FUNC_SMBUS_BYTE_DATA to be able to use SMBus commands to
write a command and read/write one byte of data.
▶ See include/uapi/linux/i2c.h for the full list of existing functionalities.

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 References

▶ [Link] general presentation of the I2C protocol

▶ i2c/, details about Linux support for I2C
▶ i2c/writing-clients
How to write I2C kernel device drivers
▶ i2c/dev-interface
How to write I2C user-space device drivers
▶ i2c/instantiating-devices
How to instantiate devices
▶ i2c/smbus-protocol
Details on the SMBus functions
▶ i2c/functionality
How the functionality mechanism works
▶ [Link]
[Link], excellent talk: You, me and I2C from David Anders at ELCE
2012.
- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 195/467
 Introduction to pin muxing

Introduction to pin
muxing

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 196/467
 What is pin muxing?

▶ Modern SoCs (System on Chip) include more and more hardware blocks, many of
which need to interface with the outside world using pins.
▶ However, the physical size of the chips remains small, and therefore the number of
available pins is limited.
▶ For this reason, not all of the internal hardware block features can be exposed on
the pins simultaneously.
▶ The pins are multiplexed: they expose either the functionality of hardware block
A or the functionality of hardware block B.
▶ This multiplexing is usually software configurable.

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 Pin muxing diagram

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 Pin muxing in the Linux kernel

▶ Since Linux 3.2, a pinctrl subsystem has been added.

▶ This subsystem, located in drivers/pinctrl/ provides a generic subsystem to
handle pin muxing. It offers:
▶ A pin muxing driver interface, to implement the system-on-chip specific drivers that
configure the muxing.
▶ A pin muxing consumer interface, for device drivers.
▶ Most pinctrl drivers provide a Device Tree binding, and the pin muxing must be
described in the Device Tree.
▶ The exact Device Tree binding depends on each driver. Each binding is defined in
Documentation/devicetree/bindings/pinctrl.

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 pinctrl subsystem diagram

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 200/467
 Device Tree properties for consumer devices

The devices that require certains pins to be muxed will use the pinctrl-<x> and
pinctrl-names Device Tree properties.
▶ The pinctrl-0, pinctrl-1, pinctrl-<x> properties link to a pin configuration
for a given state of the device.
▶ The pinctrl-names property associates a name to each state. The name
default is special, and is automatically selected by a device driver, without
having to make an explicit pinctrl function call.
▶ See Documentation/devicetree/bindings/pinctrl/[Link] for
details.

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 Device Tree properties for consumer devices - Examples

i2c0: i2c@f8014000 {
i2c0: i2c@11000 {
...
...
pinctrl-names = "default", "gpio";
pinctrl-0 = <&pmx_twsi0>;
pinctrl-0 = <&pinctrl_i2c0>;
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-1 = <&pinctrl_i2c0_gpio>;
...
...
};
};
Most common case
Case with multiple pin states
(arch/arm/boot/dts/[Link])
(arch/arm/boot/dts/[Link])

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 Defining pinctrl configurations

▶ The different pinctrl configurations must be defined as child nodes of the main
pinctrl device (which controls the muxing of pins).
▶ The configurations may be defined at:
▶ the SoC level (.dtsi file), for pin configurations that are often shared between
multiple boards
▶ at the board level (.dts file) for configurations that are board specific.
▶ The pinctrl-<x> property of the consumer device points to the pin configuration
it needs through a DT phandle.
▶ The description of the configurations is specific to each pinctrl driver. See
Documentation/devicetree/bindings/pinctrl for the pinctrl bindings.

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 Example on OMAP/AM33xx

/* Excerpt from [Link] */

&am33xx_pinmux {
...
i2c2_pins: pinmux_i2c2_pins {
▶ On OMAP/AM33xx, the pinctrl-single pinctrl-single,pins = <
AM33XX_IOPAD(0x978, PIN_INPUT_PULLUP | MUX_MODE3)
driver is used. It is common between multiple /* (D18) uart1_ctsn.I2C2_SDA */
AM33XX_IOPAD(0x97c, PIN_INPUT_PULLUP | MUX_MODE3)
SoCs and simply allows to configure pins by /* (D17) uart1_rtsn.I2C2_SCL */
>;
writing a value to a register. };
▶ In each pin configuration, a };

pinctrl-single,pins value gives a list &i2c2 {

pinctrl-names = "default";
of (register, value) pairs needed to pinctrl-0 = <&i2c2_pins>;
configure the pins. status = "okay";
▶ To know the correct values, one must use the clock-frequency = <400000>;
...
SoC and board datasheets. pressure@76 {
compatible = "bosch,bmp280";
reg = <0x76>;
};
};

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 Example on the Allwinner A20 SoC

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 Illustration: live pin muxing configuration

Viewing pin assignments

on the PCB

Show the DTS,

generate the DTB

Choosing exposed signals

Try ACME Systems’ on-line pin-out generator: [Link]

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 Practical lab - Communicate with the Nunchuk

▶ Configure the pinmuxing for the I2C bus used

to communicate with the Nunchuk
▶ Validate that the I2C communication works
with user space tools.
▶ Extend the I2C driver started in the previous
lab to communicate with the Nunchuk.

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

Kernel frameworks for

device drivers

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Kernel and Device Drivers

In Linux, a driver is always interfacing with:

▶ a framework that allows the driver to expose the
hardware features to user space applications.
▶ a bus infrastructure, part of the device model, to
detect/communicate with the hardware.
This section focuses on the kernel frameworks, while the bus
infrastructure was covered earlier in this training.

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

User space vision of devices

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 Types of devices

Under Linux, there are essentially three types of devices:

▶ Network devices. They are represented as network interfaces, visible in user
space using ip a
▶ Block devices. They are used to provide user space applications access to raw
storage devices (hard disks, USB keys). They are visible to the applications as
device files in /dev.
▶ Character devices. They are used to provide user space applications access to all
other types of devices (input, sound, graphics, serial, etc.). They are also visible
to the applications as device files in /dev.
→ Most devices are character devices, so we will study these in more details.

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 Major and minor numbers

▶ Within the kernel, all block and character devices are identified using a major and
a minor number.
▶ The major number typically indicates the family of the device.
▶ The minor number allows drivers to distinguish the various devices they manage.
▶ Most major and minor numbers are statically allocated, and identical across all
Linux systems.
▶ They are defined in admin-guide/devices.

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 Devices: everything is a file

▶ A very important UNIX design decision was to represent most system objects as
files
▶ It allows applications to manipulate all system objects with the normal file API
(open, read, write, close, etc.)
▶ So, devices had to be represented as files to the applications
▶ This is done through a special artifact called a device file
▶ It is a special type of file, that associates a file name visible to user space
applications to the triplet (type, major, minor) that the kernel understands
▶ All device files are by convention stored in the /dev directory

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 Device files examples
Example of device files in a Linux system

$ ls -l /dev/ttyS0 /dev/tty1 /dev/sda /dev/sda1 /dev/sda2 /dev/sdc1 /dev/zero

brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 0 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/sda
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 1 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/sda1
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 2 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/sda2
brw-rw---- 1 root disk 8, 32 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/sdc
crw------- 1 root root 4, 1 2011-05-27 08:57 /dev/tty1
crw-rw---- 1 root dialout 4, 64 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/ttyS0
crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 5 2011-05-27 08:56 /dev/zero

Example C code that uses the usual file API to write data to a serial port
int fd;
fd = open("/dev/ttyS0", O_RDWR);
write(fd, "Hello", 5);
close(fd);

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 Creating device files

▶ Before Linux 2.6.32, on basic Linux systems, the device files had to be created
manually using the mknod command
▶ mknod /dev/<device> [c|b] major minor
▶ Needed root privileges
▶ Coherency between device files and devices handled by the kernel was left to the
system developer
▶ The devtmpfs virtual filesystem can be mounted on /dev and contains all the
devices registered to kernel frameworks. The CONFIG_DEVTMPFS_MOUNT kernel
configuration option makes the kernel mount it automatically at boot time, except
when booting on an initramfs.

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

Character drivers

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 A character driver in the kernel

▶ From the point of view of an application, a character device is essentially a file.

▶ The driver of a character device must therefore implement operations that let
applications think the device is a file: open, close, read, write, etc.
▶ In order to achieve this, a character driver must implement the operations
described in the struct file_operations structure and register them.
▶ The Linux filesystem layer will ensure that the driver’s operations are called when
a user space application makes the corresponding system call.

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 From user space to the kernel: character devices

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 File operations

Here are the most important operations for a character driver, from the definition of
struct file_operations:
struct file_operations {
struct module *owner;
ssize_t (*read) (struct file *, char __user *,
size_t, loff_t *);
ssize_t (*write) (struct file *, const char __user *,
size_t, loff_t *);
long (*unlocked_ioctl) (struct file *, unsigned int,
unsigned long);
int (*mmap) (struct file *, struct vm_area_struct *);
int (*open) (struct inode *, struct file *);
int (*release) (struct inode *, struct file *);
...
};
Many more operations exist. All of them are optional.

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 open() and release()

▶ int foo_open(struct inode *i, struct file *f)

▶ Called when user space opens the device file.
▶ Only implement this function when you do something special with the device
at open() time.
▶ struct inode is a structure that uniquely represents a file in the filesystem (be it a
regular file, a directory, a symbolic link, a character or block device)
▶ struct file is a structure created every time a file is opened. Several file structures
can point to the same inode structure.
▶ Contains information like the current position, the opening mode, etc.
▶ Has a void *private_data pointer that one can freely use.
▶ A pointer to the file structure is passed to all other operations

▶ int foo_release(struct inode *i, struct file *f)

▶ Called when user space closes the file.
▶ Only implement this function when you do something special with the device
at close() time.
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 read() and write()

▶ ssize_t foo_read(struct file *f, char __user *buf, size_t sz, loff_t *off)
▶ Called when user space uses the read() system call on the device.
▶ Must read data from the device, write at most sz bytes to the user space buffer buf,
and update the current position in the file off. f is a pointer to the same file
structure that was passed in the open() operation
▶ Must return the number of bytes read.
0 is usually interpreted by userspace as the end of the file.
▶ On UNIX, read() operations typically block when there isn’t enough data to read
from the device
▶ ssize_t foo_write(struct file *f, const char __user *buf, size_t sz, loff_t *off)
▶ Called when user space uses the write() system call on the device
▶ The opposite of read, must read at most sz bytes from buf, write it to the device,
update off and return the number of bytes written.

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 Exchanging data with user space 1/3

▶ Kernel code isn’t allowed to directly access user space memory, using memcpy() or
direct pointer dereferencing
▶ Doing so does not work on some architectures
▶ If the address passed by the application was invalid, the application would segfault.
▶ Never trust user space. A malicious application could pass a kernel address which
you could overwrite with device data (read case), or which you could dump to the
device (write case).
▶ To keep the kernel code portable, secure, and have proper error handling, your
driver must use special kernel functions to exchange data with user space.

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 Exchanging data with user space 2/3

▶ A single value
▶ get_user(v, p);
▶ The kernel variable v gets the value pointed by the user space pointer p
▶ put_user(v, p);
▶ The value pointed by the user space pointer p is set to the contents of the kernel
variable v.
▶ A buffer
▶ unsigned long copy_to_user(void __user *to,
const void *from, unsigned long n);
▶ unsigned long copy_from_user(void *to,
const void __user *from, unsigned long n);
▶ The return value must be checked. Zero on success, non-zero on failure. If
non-zero, the convention is to return -EFAULT.

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 Exchanging data with user space 3/3

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 Zero copy access to user memory

▶ Having to copy data to or from an intermediate kernel buffer can become

expensive when the amount of data to transfer is large (video).
▶ Zero copy options are possible:
▶ mmap() system call to allow user space to directly access memory mapped I/O space.
See our mmap() chapter.
▶ get_user_pages() and related functions to get a mapping to user pages without
having to copy them.

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 unlocked_ioctl()

▶ long unlocked_ioctl(struct file *f, unsigned int cmd, unsigned long arg)
▶ Associated to the ioctl() system call.
▶ Called unlocked because it didn’t hold the Big Kernel Lock (gone now).
▶ Allows to extend the driver capabilities beyond the limited read/write API.
▶ For example: changing the speed of a serial port, setting video output format,
querying a device serial number... Used extensively in the V4L2 (video) and ALSA
(sound) driver frameworks.
▶ cmd is a number identifying the operation to perform.
See driver-api/ioctl for the recommended way of choosing cmd numbers.
▶ arg is the optional argument passed as third argument of the ioctl() system call.
Can be an integer, an address, etc.
▶ The semantic of cmd and arg is driver-specific.

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 ioctl() example: kernel side
#include <linux/phantom.h>

static long phantom_ioctl(struct file *file, unsigned int cmd,

unsigned long arg)
{
struct phm_reg r;
void __user *argp = (void __user *)arg;

switch (cmd) {
case PHN_SET_REG:
if (copy_from_user(&r, argp, sizeof(r)))
return -EFAULT;
/* Do something */
break;
...
case PHN_GET_REG:
if (copy_to_user(argp, &r, sizeof(r)))
return -EFAULT;
/* Do something */
break;
...
default:
return -ENOTTY;
}

return 0;
}

Selected excerpt from drivers/misc/phantom.c

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 Ioctl() Example: Application Side

#include <linux/phantom.h>

int main(void)
{
int fd, ret;
struct phm_reg reg;

fd = open("/dev/phantom");
assert(fd > 0);

reg.field1 = 42;
reg.field2 = 67;

ret = ioctl(fd, PHN_SET_REG, &reg);

assert(ret == 0);

return 0;
}

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

The concept of kernel frameworks

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 Beyond character drivers: kernel frameworks

▶ Many device drivers are not implemented directly as character drivers

▶ They are implemented under a framework, specific to a given device type
(framebuffer, V4L, serial, etc.)
▶ The framework allows to factorize the common parts of drivers for the same type of
devices
▶ From user space, they are still seen as character devices by the applications
▶ The framework allows to provide a coherent user space interface (ioctl, etc.) for
every type of device, regardless of the driver

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 Kernel Frameworks

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 Example: Framebuffer Framework

▶ Kernel option CONFIG_FB

▶ menuconfig FB
▶ tristate "Support for frame buffer devices"
▶ Implemented in C files in drivers/video/fbdev/core/
▶ Defines the user/kernel API
▶ include/uapi/linux/fb.h (constants and structures)
▶ Defines the set of operations a framebuffer driver must implement and helper
functions for the drivers
▶ struct fb_ops
▶ include/linux/fb.h

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 Framebuffer driver operations
Here are the operations a framebuffer driver can or must implement, and define them in a
struct fb_ops structure (excerpt from drivers/video/fbdev/skeletonfb.c)
static struct fb_ops xxxfb_ops = {
.owner = THIS_MODULE,
.fb_open = xxxfb_open,
.fb_read = xxxfb_read,
.fb_write = xxxfb_write,
.fb_release = xxxfb_release,
.fb_check_var = xxxfb_check_var,
.fb_set_par = xxxfb_set_par,
.fb_setcolreg = xxxfb_setcolreg,
.fb_blank = xxxfb_blank,
.fb_pan_display = xxxfb_pan_display,
.fb_fillrect = xxxfb_fillrect, /* Needed !!! */
.fb_copyarea = xxxfb_copyarea, /* Needed !!! */
.fb_imageblit = xxxfb_imageblit, /* Needed !!! */
.fb_cursor = xxxfb_cursor, /* Optional !!! */
.fb_rotate = xxxfb_rotate,
.fb_sync = xxxfb_sync,
.fb_ioctl = xxxfb_ioctl,
.fb_mmap = xxxfb_mmap,
};
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 Framebuffer driver code

▶ In the probe() function, registration of the framebuffer device and operations

static int xxxfb_probe (struct pci_dev *dev, const struct pci_device_id *ent)
{
struct fb_info *info;
[...]
info = framebuffer_alloc(sizeof(struct xxx_par), device);
[...]
info->fbops = &xxxfb_ops;
[...]
if (register_framebuffer(info) < 0)
return -EINVAL;
[...]
}
▶ register_framebuffer() will create a new character device in devtmpfs that can
be used by user space applications with the generic framebuffer API.

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

Device-managed allocations

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 Device managed allocations

▶ The probe() function is typically responsible for allocating a significant number

of resources: memory, mapping I/O registers, registering interrupt handlers, etc.
▶ These resource allocations have to be properly freed:
▶ In the probe() function, in case of failure
▶ In the remove() function
▶ This required a lot of failure handling code that was rarely tested
▶ To solve this problem, device managed allocations have been introduced.
▶ The idea is to associate resource allocation with the struct device, and
automatically release those resources
▶ When the device disappears
▶ When the device is unbound from the driver
▶ Functions prefixed by devm_
▶ See driver-api/driver-model/devres for details

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 Device managed allocations: memory allocation example
▶ Normally done with kmalloc(size_t, gfp_t), released with kfree(void *)
▶ Device managed with devm_kmalloc(struct device *, size_t, gfp_t)

Without devm functions With devm functions

int foo_probe(struct platform_device *pdev) int foo_probe(struct platform_device *pdev)
{ {
struct foo_t *foo = kmalloc(sizeof(struct foo_t), struct foo_t *foo = devm_kmalloc(&pdev->dev,
GFP_KERNEL); sizeof(struct foo_t),
/* Register to framework, store GFP_KERNEL);
* reference to framework structure in foo */ /* Register to framework, store
... * reference to framework structure in foo */
if (failure) { ...
kfree(foo); if (failure)
return -EBUSY; return -EBUSY;
} platform_set_drvdata(pdev, foo);
platform_set_drvdata(pdev, foo); return 0;
return 0; }
}
void foo_remove(struct platform_device *pdev)
void foo_remove(struct platform_device *pdev) {
{ struct foo_t *foo = platform_get_drvdata(pdev);
struct foo_t *foo = platform_get_drvdata(pdev); /* Retrieve framework structure from foo
/* Retrieve framework structure from foo and unregister it */
and unregister it */ ...
... /* foo automatically freed */
kfree(foo); }
}

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 Kernel frameworks for device drivers

Driver data structures and links

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 Driver-specific Data Structure

▶ Each framework defines a structure that a device driver must register to be

recognized as a device in this framework
▶ struct uart_port for serial ports, struct net_device for network devices,
struct fb_info for framebuffers, etc.
▶ In addition to this structure, the driver usually needs to store additional
information about each device
▶ This is typically done
▶ By subclassing the appropriate framework structure
▶ By storing a reference to the appropriate framework structure
▶ Or by including your information in the framework structure

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 Driver-specific Data Structure Examples 1/2

▶ [Link] serial driver: struct imx_port is a subclass of struct uart_port

struct imx_port {
struct uart_port port;
struct timer_list timer;
unsigned int old_status;
int txirq, rxirq, rtsirq;
unsigned int have_rtscts:1;
[...]
};
▶ ds1305 RTC driver: struct ds1305 has a reference to struct rtc_device
struct ds1305 {
struct spi_device *spi;
struct rtc_device *rtc;
[...]
};

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 Driver-specific Data Structure Examples 2/2

▶ rtl8150 network driver: struct rtl8150 has a reference to struct net_device

and is allocated within that framework structure.
struct rtl8150 {
unsigned long flags;
struct usb_device *udev;
struct tasklet_struct tl;
struct net_device *netdev;
[...]
};

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 Links between structures 1/4

▶ The framework structure typically contains a struct device * pointer that the
driver must point to the corresponding struct device
▶ It’s the relationship between the logical device (for example a network interface) and
the physical device (for example the USB network adapter)
▶ The device structure also contains a void * pointer that the driver can freely use.
▶ It’s often used to link back the device to the higher-level structure from the
framework.
▶ It allows, for example, from the struct platform_device structure, to find the
structure describing the logical device

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 Links between structures 2/4

static int serial_imx_probe(struct platform_device *pdev)

{
struct imx_port *sport; /* per device structure */
[...]
sport = devm_kzalloc(&pdev->dev, sizeof(*sport), GFP_KERNEL);
[...]
/* setup the link between uart_port and the struct
* device inside the platform_device */
sport->[Link] = &pdev->dev; // Arrow 1
[...]
/* setup the link between the struct device inside
* the platform device to the imx_port structure */
platform_set_drvdata(pdev, sport); // Arrow 2
[...]
uart_add_one_port(&imx_reg, &sport->port);
}

static int serial_imx_remove(struct platform_device *pdev)

{
/* retrieve the imx_port from the platform_device */
struct imx_port *sport = platform_get_drvdata(pdev);
[...]
uart_remove_one_port(&imx_reg, &sport->port);
[...]
}

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 Links between structures 3/4

static int ds1305_probe(struct spi_device *spi)

{
struct ds1305 *ds1305;

[...]

/* set up driver data */

ds1305 = devm_kzalloc(&spi->dev, sizeof(*ds1305), GFP_KERNEL);
if (!ds1305)
return -ENOMEM;
ds1305->spi = spi; // Arrow 1
spi_set_drvdata(spi, ds1305); // Arrow 2

[...]

ds1305->rtc = devm_rtc_allocate_device(&spi->dev);
// Arrows 3 and 4

[...]
}

static int ds1305_remove(struct spi_device *spi)

{
struct ds1305 *ds1305 = spi_get_drvdata(spi);

[...]
}

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 Links between structures 4/4
static int rtl8150_probe(struct usb_interface *intf,
const struct usb_device_id *id)
{
struct usb_device *udev = interface_to_usbdev(intf);
rtl8150_t *dev;
struct net_device *netdev;

netdev = alloc_etherdev(sizeof(rtl8150_t));
dev = netdev_priv(netdev);

[...]

dev->udev = udev; // Arrow 1

dev->netdev = netdev; // Arrow 2

[...]

usb_set_intfdata(intf, dev); // Arrow 3

SET_NETDEV_DEV(netdev, &intf->dev); // Arrow 4

[...]
}

static void rtl8150_disconnect(struct usb_interface *intf)

{
rtl8150_t *dev = usb_get_intfdata(intf);

[...]
}

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 The input subsystem

The input subsystem

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 What is the input subsystem?

▶ The input subsystem takes care of all the input events coming from the human
user.
▶ Initially written to support the USB HID (Human Interface Device) devices, it
quickly grew up to handle all kinds of inputs (using USB or not): keyboards, mice,
joysticks, touchscreens, etc.
▶ The input subsystem is split in two parts:
▶ Device drivers: they talk to the hardware (for example via USB), and provide
events (keystrokes, mouse movements, touchscreen coordinates) to the input core
▶ Event handlers: they get events from drivers and pass them where needed via
various interfaces (most of the time through evdev)
▶ In user space it is usually used by the graphic stack such as [Link], Wayland or
Android’s InputManager.

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 Input subsystem diagram

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 Input subsystem overview

▶ Kernel option CONFIG_INPUT

▶ menuconfig INPUT
▶ tristate "Generic input layer (needed for keyboard, mouse, ...)"
▶ Implemented in drivers/input/
▶ input.c, input-polldev.c, evdev.c...
▶ Defines the user/kernel API
▶ include/uapi/linux/input.h
▶ Defines the set of operations an input driver must implement and helper functions
for the drivers
▶ struct input_dev for the device driver part
▶ struct input_handler for the event handler part
▶ include/linux/input.h

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 Input subsystem API 1/3

An input device is described by a very long struct input_dev structure, an excerpt is:
struct input_dev {
const char *name;
[...]
struct input_id id;
[...]
unsigned long evbit[BITS_TO_LONGS(EV_CNT)];
unsigned long keybit[BITS_TO_LONGS(KEY_CNT)];
[...]
int (*getkeycode)(struct input_dev *dev,
struct input_keymap_entry *ke);
[...]
int (*open)(struct input_dev *dev);
[...]
int (*event)(struct input_dev *dev, unsigned int type,
unsigned int code, int value);
[...]
};

Before being used, this structure must be allocated and initialized, typically with:
struct input_dev *devm_input_allocate_device(struct device *dev);

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 Input subsystem API 2/3

▶ Depending on the type of events that will be generated, the input bit fields evbit
and keybit must be configured: For example, for a button we only generate
EV_KEY type events, and from these only BTN_0 events code:
set_bit(EV_KEY, myinput_dev.evbit);
set_bit(BTN_0, myinput_dev.keybit);

▶ set_bit() is an atomic operation allowing to set a particular bit to 1 (explained

later).
▶ Once the input device is allocated and filled, the function to register it is:
int input_register_device(struct input_dev *);

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 Input subsystem API 3/3

The events are sent by the driver to the event handler using input_event(struct
input_dev *dev, unsigned int type, unsigned int code, int value);
▶ The event types are documented in input/event-codes
▶ An event is composed by one or several input data changes (packet of input data
changes) such as the button state, the relative or absolute position along an axis,
etc..
▶ After submitting potentially multiple events, the input core must be notified by
calling: void input_sync(struct input_dev *dev):
▶ The input subsystem provides other wrappers such as input_report_key(),
input_report_abs(), ...

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 Example from drivers/hid/usbhid/usbmouse.c

static void usb_mouse_irq(struct urb *urb)

{
struct usb_mouse *mouse = urb->context;
signed char *data = mouse->data;
struct input_dev *dev = mouse->dev;
...

input_report_key(dev, BTN_LEFT, data[0] & 0x01);

input_report_key(dev, BTN_RIGHT, data[0] & 0x02);
input_report_key(dev, BTN_MIDDLE, data[0] & 0x04);
input_report_key(dev, BTN_SIDE, data[0] & 0x08);
input_report_key(dev, BTN_EXTRA, data[0] & 0x10);

input_report_rel(dev, REL_X, data[1]);

input_report_rel(dev, REL_Y, data[2]);
input_report_rel(dev, REL_WHEEL, data[3]);

input_sync(dev);
...
}

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 Polling input devices

▶ The input subsystem provides an API to support simple input devices that do not
raise interrupts but have to be periodically scanned or polled to detect changes in
their state.
▶ Setting up polling is done using input_setup_polling():
int input_setup_polling(struct input_dev *dev, void (*poll_fn)
(struct input_dev *dev));
▶ poll_fn is the function that will be called periodically.
▶ The polling interval can be set using input_set_poll_interval() or
input_set_min_poll_interval() and input_set_max_poll_interval()

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 evdev user space interface

▶ The main user space interface to input devices is the event interface
▶ Each input device is represented as a /dev/input/event<X> character device
▶ A user space application can use blocking and non-blocking reads, but also
select() (to get notified of events) after opening this device.
▶ Each read will return struct input_event structures of the following format:
struct input_event {
struct timeval time;
unsigned short type;
unsigned short code;
unsigned int value;
};

▶ A very useful application for input device testing is evtest, from

[Link]

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 Practical lab - Expose the Nunchuk to user space

▶ Extend the Nunchuk driver to expose the

Nunchuk features to user space applications, as
an input device.
▶ Test the operation of the Nunchuk using
evtest

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 Memory Management

Memory Management

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Physical and virtual memory

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 Virtual memory organization (on 32 bit)

▶ 1GB reserved for kernel-space

▶ Contains kernel code and core data structures, identical
in all address spaces
▶ Most memory can be a direct mapping of physical
memory at a fixed offset
▶ Complete 3GB exclusive mapping available for each user
space process
▶ Process code and data (program, stack, ...)
▶ Memory-mapped files
▶ Not necessarily mapped to physical memory (demand
fault paging used for dynamic mapping to physical
memory pages)
▶ Differs from one address space to another

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 Physical / virtual memory mapping (on 32 bit)

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 Accessing more physical memory on 32 bit

If you cannot use a 64 bit system (see x86/x86_64/mm for example)

▶ Only less than 1GB memory addressable directly through kernel virtual addresses
▶ If more physical memory is present on the platform, part of the memory will not
be accessible by kernel space, but can be used by user space
▶ To allow the kernel to access more physical memory:
▶ Change the 3GB/1GB memory split to 2GB/2GB or 1GB/3GB (CONFIG_VMSPLIT_2G
or CONFIG_VMSPLIT_1G) ⇒ reduce total user memory available for each process
▶ Activate highmem support if available for your architecture:
▶ Allows kernel to map parts of its non-directly accessible memory
▶ Mapping must be requested explicitly
▶ Limited addresses ranges reserved for this usage
▶ See Arnd Bergmann’s 4GB by 4GB split presentation (video and slides) at Linaro
Connect virtual 2020: [Link]

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 Notes on user space memory

▶ New user space memory is allocated either from the already allocated process
memory, or using the mmap system call
▶ Note that memory allocated may not be physically allocated:
▶ Kernel uses demand fault paging to allocate the physical page (the physical page is
allocated when access to the virtual address generates a page fault)
▶ ... or may have been swapped out, which also induces a page fault
▶ User space memory allocation is allowed to over-commit memory (more than
available physical memory) ⇒ can lead to out of memory
▶ OOM killer kicks in and selects a process to kill to retrieve some memory. That’s
better than letting the system freeze.

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 Allocators in the kernel

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 Page allocator

▶ Appropriate for medium-size allocations

▶ A page is usually 4K, but can be made greater in some architectures (sh, mips: 4,
8, 16 or 64 KB, but not configurable in x86 or arm).
▶ Buddy allocator strategy, so only allocations of power of two number of pages are
possible: 1 page, 2 pages, 4 pages, 8 pages, 16 pages, etc.
▶ Typical maximum size is 8192 KB, but it might depend on the kernel
configuration.
▶ The allocated area is contiguous in the kernel virtual address space, but also maps
to physically contiguous pages. It is allocated in the identity-mapped part of the
kernel memory space.
▶ This means that large areas may not be available or hard to retrieve due to physical
memory fragmentation.
▶ The Contiguous Memory Allocator is a solution to satisfy requests for large
contiguous areas (see [Link]

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 Page allocator API: get free pages

▶ unsigned long get_zeroed_page(int flags)

▶ Returns the virtual address of a free page, initialized to zero
▶ flags: see the next pages for details.
▶ unsigned long __get_free_page(int flags)
▶ Same, but doesn’t initialize the contents
▶ unsigned long __get_free_pages(int flags, unsigned int order)
▶ Returns the starting virtual address of an area of several contiguous pages in physical
RAM, with order being log2(number_of_pages).Can be computed from the size
with the get_order() function.

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 Page allocator API: free pages

▶ void free_page(unsigned long addr)

▶ Frees one page.
▶ void free_pages(unsigned long addr, unsigned int order)
▶ Frees multiple pages. Need to use the same order as in allocation.

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 Page allocator flags

The most common ones are:

▶ GFP_KERNEL
▶ Standard kernel memory allocation. The allocation may block in order to find
enough available memory. Fine for most needs, except in interrupt handler context.
▶ GFP_ATOMIC
▶ RAM allocated from code which is not allowed to block (interrupt handlers or
critical sections). Never blocks, allows to access emergency pools, but can fail if no
free memory is readily available.
▶ GFP_DMA
▶ Allocates memory in an area of the physical memory usable for DMA transfers. See
our DMA chapter.
▶ Others are defined in include/linux/gfp.h.
See also the documentation in core-api/memory-allocation

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 SLAB allocator 1/2

▶ The SLAB allocator allows to create caches, which contain a set of objects of the
same size. In English, slab means tile.
▶ The object size can be smaller or greater than the page size
▶ The SLAB allocator takes care of growing or reducing the size of the cache as
needed, depending on the number of allocated objects. It uses the page allocator
to allocate and free pages.
▶ SLAB caches are used for data structures that are present in many instances in
the kernel: directory entries, file objects, network packet descriptors, process
descriptors, etc.
▶ See /proc/slabinfo
▶ They are rarely used for individual drivers.
▶ See include/linux/slab.h for the API

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 SLAB allocator 2/2

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 Different SLAB allocators
There are three different, but API compatible, implementations of a SLAB allocator in the
Linux kernel. A particular implementation is chosen at configuration time.
▶ SLAB: legacy, well proven allocator.
Linux 5.10 on arm (32 bit): used in 39 defconfig files
▶ SLOB: much simpler. More space efficient but doesn’t scale well.
Can save space in small systems (depends on CONFIG_EXPERT).
Linux 5.10 on arm (32 bit): used in 7 defconfig files
Results on BeagleBone Black: -5 KB compressed kernel size, +1.43 s boot time!
▶ SLUB: more recent and simpler than SLAB, scaling much better (in particular for huge
systems) and creating less fragmentation. Now the default allocator.
Linux 5.10 on arm (32 bit): used in 9 defconfig files
Results on BeagleBone Black: +4 KB compressed kernel, + 2ms total boot time.

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 kmalloc allocator
▶ The kmalloc allocator is the general purpose memory allocator in the Linux kernel
▶ For small sizes, it relies on generic SLAB caches, named kmalloc-XXX in
/proc/slabinfo
▶ For larger sizes, it relies on the page allocator
▶ The allocated area is guaranteed to be physically contiguous
▶ The allocated area size is rounded up to the size of the smallest SLAB cache in
which it can fit (while using the SLAB allocator directly allows to have more
flexibility)
▶ It uses the same flags as the page allocator (GFP_KERNEL, GFP_ATOMIC, GFP_DMA,
etc.) with the same semantics.
▶ Maximum sizes, on x86 and arm (see [Link]
- Per allocation: 4 MB
- Total allocations: 128 MB
▶ Should be used as the primary allocator unless there is a strong reason to use
another one.
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 kmalloc API 1/2

▶ #include <linux/slab.h>
▶ void *kmalloc(size_t size, int flags);
▶ Allocate size bytes, and return a pointer to the area (virtual address)
▶ size: number of bytes to allocate
▶ flags: same flags as the page allocator
▶ void kfree(const void *objp);
▶ Free an allocated area
▶ Example: (drivers/infiniband/core/cache.c)
struct ib_port_attr *tprops;
tprops = kmalloc(sizeof *tprops, GFP_KERNEL);
...
kfree(tprops);

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 kmalloc API 2/2

▶ void *kzalloc(size_t size, gfp_t flags);

▶ Allocates a zero-initialized buffer
▶ void *kcalloc(size_t n, size_t size, gfp_t flags);
▶ Allocates memory for an array of n elements of size size, and zeroes its contents.
▶ void *krealloc(const void *p, size_t new_size, gfp_t flags);
▶ Changes the size of the buffer pointed by p to new_size, by reallocating a new
buffer and copying the data, unless new_size fits within the alignment of the
existing buffer.

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 devm_ kmalloc functions

Allocations with automatic freeing when the corresponding device or module is

unprobed.
▶ void *devm_kmalloc(struct device *dev, size_t size, int flags);
▶ void *devm_kzalloc(struct device *dev, size_t size, int flags);
▶ void *devm_kcalloc(struct device *dev, size_t n, size_t size, gfp_t flags);
▶ void *devm_kfree(struct device *dev, void *p);
Useful to immediately free an allocated buffer
For use in probe() functions, in which you have access to a struct device structure.

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 vmalloc allocator

▶ The vmalloc() allocator can be used to obtain memory zones that are contiguous
in the virtual addressing space, but not made out of physically contiguous pages.
The requested memory size is rounded up to the next page.
▶ The allocated area is in the kernel space part of the address space, but outside of
the identically-mapped area
▶ Allocations of fairly large areas is possible (almost as big as total available
memory, see [Link] again), since physical memory fragmentation
is not an issue, but areas cannot be used for DMA, as DMA usually requires
physically contiguous buffers.
▶ Example use: to allocate kernel buffers to load module code.
▶ API in include/linux/vmalloc.h
▶ void *vmalloc(unsigned long size);
▶ Returns a virtual address
▶ void vfree(void *addr);
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 Kernel memory debugging

▶ KASAN (Kernel Address Sanitizer)

▶ Dynamic memory error detector, to find use-after-free and out-of-bounds bugs.
▶ Available on most archictures
▶ See dev-tools/kasan for details.
▶ KFENCE (Kernel Electric Fence)
▶ A low overhead alternative to KASAN, trading performance for precision. Meant to
be used in production systems.
▶ Only available on x86, arm64 and powerpc (Linux 5.13 status)
▶ See dev-tools/kfence for details.
▶ Kmemleak
▶ Dynamic checker for memory leaks
▶ This feature is available for all architectures.
▶ See dev-tools/kmemleak for details.

KASAN and Kmemleak have a significant overhead. Only use them in development!

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 Kernel memory management: resources
Virtual memory and Linux, Alan Ott and Matt Porter, 2016
Great and much more complete presentation about this topic
[Link] (video: [Link]

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 I/O Memory

I/O Memory

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Memory-Mapped I/O

▶ Same address bus to address memory and I/O device

registers
▶ Access to the I/O device registers using regular instructions
▶ Most widely used I/O method across the different
architectures supported by Linux

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 Requesting I/O memory

▶ Tells the kernel which driver is using which I/O registers

▶ struct resource *request_mem_region(unsigned long start,
unsigned long len, char *name);
▶ void release_mem_region(unsigned long start, unsigned long len);
▶ Allows to prevent other drivers requesting the same I/O registers, but is purely
voluntary.

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 /proc/iomem example - ARM 32 bit (BeagleBone Black, Linux 5.11)

40300000-4030ffff : [Link] sram@0 48046000-480463ff : [Link] timer@0

44e00c00-44e00cff : [Link] prm@c00 48048000-480483ff : [Link] timer@0
44e00d00-44e00dff : [Link] prm@d00 4804a000-4804a3ff : [Link] timer@0
44e00e00-44e00eff : [Link] prm@e00 4804c000-4804cfff : [Link] gpio@0
44e00f00-44e00fff : [Link] prm@f00 48060000-48060fff : [Link] mmc@0
44e01000-44e010ff : [Link] prm@1000 4819c000-4819cfff : 4819c000.i2c i2c@0
44e01100-44e011ff : [Link] prm@1100 481a8000-481a8fff : [Link] serial@0
44e01200-44e012ff : [Link] prm@1200 481ac000-481acfff : [Link] gpio@0
44e07000-44e07fff : [Link] gpio@0 481ae000-481aefff : [Link] gpio@0
44e09000-44e0901f : serial 481d8000-481d8fff : [Link] mmc@0
44e0b000-44e0bfff : 44e0b000.i2c i2c@0 49000000-4900ffff : [Link] edma3_cc
44e10800-44e10a37 : pinctrl-single 4a100000-4a1007ff : [Link] ethernet@0
44e10f90-44e10fcf : [Link]-router dma-router@f90 4a101200-4a1012ff : [Link] ethernet@0
48024000-48024fff : [Link] serial@0 80000000-9fdfffff : System RAM
48042000-480423ff : [Link] timer@0 80008000-80cfffff : Kernel code
48044000-480443ff : [Link] timer@0 80e00000-80f3d807 : Kernel data

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 Mapping I/O memory in virtual memory

▶ Load/store instructions work with virtual addresses

▶ To access I/O memory, drivers need to have a virtual address that the processor
can handle, because I/O memory is not mapped by default in virtual memory.
▶ The ioremap function satisfies this need:
#include <asm/io.h>

void __iomem *ioremap(phys_addr_t phys_addr, unsigned long size);

void iounmap(void __iomem *addr);
▶ Caution: check that ioremap() doesn’t return a NULL address!

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 ioremap()

ioremap(0xAFFEBC00, 4096) = 0xCDEFA000

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 Managed API

Using request_mem_region() and ioremap() in device drivers is now deprecated. You

should use the below ”managed” functions instead, which simplify driver coding and
error handling:
▶ devm_ioremap(), devm_iounmap()
▶ devm_ioremap_resource()
▶ Takes care of both the request and remapping operations!
▶ devm_platform_ioremap_resource()
▶ Takes care of platform_get_resource(), request_mem_region() and ioremap()
▶ Caution: unlike the other devm_ functions, its first argument is of type struct pdev,
not a pointer to struct device:
▶ Example: drivers/char/hw_random/st-rng.c:

base = devm_platform_ioremap_resource(pdev, 0);

if (IS_ERR(base))
return PTR_ERR(base);

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 Accessing MMIO devices

▶ Directly reading from or writing to addresses returned by ioremap() (pointer

dereferencing) may not work on some architectures.
▶ To do PCI-style, little-endian accesses (byte swapping being done automatically
assuming a little-endian device):
unsigned read[bwlq](void *addr);
void write[bwlq](unsigned val, void *addr);
▶ To do raw access, without endianness conversion
unsigned __raw_read[bwlq](void *addr);
void __raw_write[bwlq](unsigned val, void *addr);
▶ Little-endian is more frequent and also easier to use in drivers. Even if you just
read the least significant byte of a 32-bit register, it’s still at the same address.
▶ Example
▶ 32 bit write (drivers/tty/serial/uartlite.c):
writel(c & 0xff, port->membase + 4);
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 Avoiding I/O access issues

▶ Caching on I/O memory already disabled

▶ Use the writel()/readl() macros, they do the right thing for your architecture
▶ The compiler and/or CPU can reorder memory accesses, which might cause
trouble for your devices is they expect one register to be read/written before
another one.
▶ Memory barriers are available to prevent this reordering
▶ rmb() is a read memory barrier, prevents reads to cross the barrier
▶ wmb() is a write memory barrier
▶ mb() is a read-write memory barrier
▶ Starts to be a problem with CPUs that reorder instructions and with SMP. See
Documentation/[Link] for details.
▶ Note that readl(), writel() and similar functions already contain barriers
(safer), while the raw ones don’t.

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 /dev/mem

▶ Used to provide user space applications with direct access to physical addresses.
▶ Usage: open /dev/mem and read or write at given offset. What you read or write
is the value at the corresponding physical address.
▶ Used by applications such as the X server to write directly to device memory.
▶ On x86, arm, arm64, riscv, powerpc, parisc, s390: CONFIG_STRICT_DEVMEM
option to restrict /dev/mem to non-RAM addresses, for security reasons (Linux
5.12 status). CONFIG_IO_STRICT_DEVMEM goes beyond and only allows to access
idle I/O ranges (not appearing in /proc/iomem).

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 Practical lab - I/O memory and ports

▶ Add UART devices to the board device tree

▶ Access I/O registers to control the device and
send first characters to it.

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 The misc subsystem

The misc subsystem

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Why a misc subsystem?

▶ The kernel offers a large number of frameworks covering a wide range of device
types: input, network, video, audio, etc.
▶ These frameworks allow to factorize common functionality between drivers and offer
a consistent API to user space applications.
▶ However, there are some devices that really do not fit in any of the existing
frameworks.
▶ Highly customized devices implemented in a FPGA, or other weird devices for which
implementing a complete framework is not useful.
▶ The drivers for such devices could be implemented directly as raw character
drivers (with cdev_init() and cdev_add()).
▶ But there is a subsystem that makes this work a little bit easier: the misc
subsystem.
▶ It is really only a thin layer above the character driver API.
▶ Another advantage is that devices are integrated in the Device Model (device files
appearing in devtmpfs, which you don’t have with raw character devices).
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 Misc subsystem diagram

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 Misc subsystem API (1/2)

▶ The misc subsystem API mainly provides two functions, to register and unregister
a single misc device:
▶ int misc_register(struct miscdevice * misc);
▶ void misc_deregister(struct miscdevice *misc);
▶ A misc device is described by a struct miscdevice structure:
struct miscdevice {
int minor;
const char *name;
const struct file_operations *fops;
struct list_head list;
struct device *parent;
struct device *this_device;
const char *nodename;
umode_t mode;
};

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 Misc subsystem API (2/2)

The main fields to be filled in struct miscdevice are:

▶ minor, the minor number for the device, or MISC_DYNAMIC_MINOR to get a minor
number automatically assigned.
▶ name, name of the device, which will be used to create the device node if
devtmpfs is used.
▶ fops, pointer to the same struct file_operations structure that is used for
raw character drivers, describing which functions implement the read, write, ioctl,
etc. operations.
▶ parent, pointer to the struct device of the underlying “physical” device
(platform device, I2C device, etc.)

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 User space API for misc devices

▶ misc devices are regular character devices

▶ The operations they support in user space depends on the operations the kernel
driver implements:
▶ The open() and close() system calls to open/close the device.
▶ The read() and write() system calls to read/write to/from the device.
▶ The ioctl() system call to call some driver-specific operations.

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 Practical lab - Output-only serial port driver

▶ Extend the driver started in the previous lab by

registering it into the misc subsystem.
▶ Implement serial output functionality through
the misc subsystem.
▶ Test serial output using user space applications.

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 Processes, scheduling and interrupts

Processes, scheduling
and interrupts

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Processes, scheduling and interrupts

Processes and scheduling

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 Process, thread?

▶ Confusion about the terms process, thread and task

▶ In UNIX, a process is created using fork() and is composed of
▶ An address space, which contains the program code, data, stack, shared libraries, etc.
▶ A single thread, which is the only entity known by the scheduler.
▶ Additional threads can be created inside an existing process, using
pthread_create()
▶ They run in the same address space as the initial thread of the process
▶ They start executing a function passed as argument to pthread_create()

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 Process, thread: kernel point of view

▶ In kernel space, each thread running in the system is represented by a structure of

type struct task_struct
▶ From a scheduling point of view, it makes no difference between the initial thread
of a process and all additional threads created dynamically using
pthread_create()

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 Relation between execution mode, address space and context

▶ When speaking about process and thread, these concepts need to be clarified:
▶ Mode is the level of privilege allowing to perform some operations:
▶ Kernel Mode: in this level CPU can perform any operation allowed by its architecture;
any instruction, any I/O operation, any area of memory accessed.
▶ User Mode: in this level, certain instructions are not permitted (especially those that
could alter the global state of the machine), some memory areas cannot be accessed.
▶ Linux splits its address space in kernel space and user space
▶ Kernel space is reserved for code running in Kernel Mode.
▶ User space is the place were applications execute (accessible from Kernel Mode).
▶ Context represents the current state of an execution flow.
▶ The process context can be seen as the content of the registers associated to this
process: execution register, stack register...
▶ The interrupt context replaces the process context when the interrupt handler is
executed.

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 A thread life

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 Execution of system calls

The execution of system calls takes place in the context of the thread requesting them.

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 Processes, scheduling and interrupts

Sleeping

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 Sleeping

Sleeping is needed when a process (user space or kernel space) is waiting for data.

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 How to sleep with a wait queue 1/3

▶ Must declare a wait queue, which will be used to store the list of threads waiting
for an event
▶ Dynamic queue declaration:
▶ Typically one queue per device managed by the driver
▶ It’s convenient to embed the wait queue inside a per-device data structure.
▶ Example from drivers/net/ethernet/marvell/mvmdio.c:
struct orion_mdio_dev {
...
wait_queue_head_t smi_busy_wait;
};
struct orion_mdio_dev *dev;
...
init_waitqueue_head(&dev->smi_busy_wait);
▶ Static queue declaration:
▶ Using a global variable when a global resource is sufficient
▶ DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD(module_queue);
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 How to sleep with a waitqueue 2/3

Several ways to make a kernel process sleep

▶ void wait_event(queue, condition);
▶ Sleeps until the task is woken up and the given C expression is true. Caution: can’t
be interrupted (can’t kill the user space process!)
▶ int wait_event_killable(queue, condition);
▶ Can be interrupted, but only by a fatal signal (SIGKILL). Returns -ERESTARTSYS if
interrupted.
▶ int wait_event_interruptible(queue, condition);
▶ The most common variant
▶ Can be interrupted by any signal. Returns -ERESTARTSYS if interrupted.

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 How to sleep with a waitqueue 3/3

▶ int wait_event_timeout(queue, condition, timeout);

▶ Also stops sleeping when the task is woken up or the timeout expired (a timer is
used).
▶ Returns 0 if the timeout elapsed, non-zero if the condition was met.
▶ int wait_event_interruptible_timeout(queue, condition, timeout);
▶ Same as above, interruptible.
▶ Returns 0 if the timeout elapsed, -ERESTARTSYS if interrupted, positive value if the
condition was met.

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 How to sleep with a waitqueue - Example

sig = wait_event_interruptible(ibmvtpm->wq,
!ibmvtpm->tpm_processing_cmd);
if (sig)
return -EINTR;
From char/tpm/tpm_ibmvtpm.c

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 Waking up!

Typically done by interrupt handlers when data sleeping processes are waiting for
become available.
▶ wake_up(&queue);
▶ Wakes up all processes in the wait queue
▶ wake_up_interruptible(&queue);
▶ Wakes up all processes waiting in an interruptible sleep on the given queue

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 Exclusive vs. non-exclusive

▶ wait_event_interruptible() puts a task in a non-exclusive wait.

▶ All non-exclusive tasks are woken up by wake_up() / wake_up_interruptible()
▶ wait_event_interruptible_exclusive() puts a task in an exclusive wait.
▶ wake_up() / wake_up_interruptible() wakes up all non-exclusive tasks and only
one exclusive task
▶ wake_up_all() / wake_up_interruptible_all() wakes up all non-exclusive and all
exclusive tasks
▶ Exclusive sleeps are useful to avoid waking up multiple tasks when only one will
be able to “consume” the event.
▶ Non-exclusive sleeps are useful when the event can “benefit” to multiple tasks.

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 Sleeping and waking up - Implementation

The scheduler doesn’t keep evaluating the

sleeping condition!
▶ wait_event(queue, cond);
The process is put in the
TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE state.
▶ wake_up(&queue);
All processes waiting in queue are
woken up, so they get scheduled later
and have the opportunity to evaluate
the condition again and go back to
sleep if it is not met.
See include/linux/wait.h for
implementation details.

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 How to sleep with completions 1/2
▶ Use wait_for_completion() when no particular condition must be enforced at
the time of the wake-up
▶ Leverages the power of wait queues
▶ Simplifies its use
▶ Highly efficient using low level scheduler facilities
▶ Preparation of the completion structure:
▶ Static declaration and initialization:
DECLARE_COMPLETION(setup_done);
▶ Dynamic declaration:
init_completion(&object->setup_done);
▶ The completion object should get a meaningful name (eg. not just “done”).
▶ Ready to be used by signal consumers and providers as soon as the completion
object is initialized
▶ See include/linux/completion.h for the full API
▶ Internal documentation at scheduler/[Link]
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 How to sleep with completions 2/2
▶ Enter a wait state with
void wait_for_completion(struct completion *done)
▶ All wait_event() flavors are also supported, such as:
wait_for_completion_timeout(),
wait_for_completion_interruptible\{,_timeout\}(),
wait_for_completion_killable\{,_timeout\}(), etc
▶ Wake up consumers with
void complete(struct completion *done)
▶ Several calls to complete() are valid, they will wake up the same number of threads
waiting on this object (acts as a FIFO).
▶ A single complete_all() call would wake up all present and future threads waiting
on this completion object
▶ Reset the counter with
void reinit_completion(struct completion *done)
▶ Resets the number of “done” completions still pending
▶ Mind not to call init_completion() twice, which could confuse the enqueued tasks
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 Waiting when there is no interrupt

▶ When there is no interrupt mechanism tied to a particular hardware state, it is

tempting to implement a custom busy-wait loop.
▶ Spoiler alert: this is highly discouraged!
▶ For long lasting pauses, rely on helpers which leverage the system clock
▶ wait_event() helpers are (also) very useful outside of interruption situations
▶ Release the CPU with schedule()
▶ For shorter pauses, use helpers which implement software loops
▶ msleep()/msleep_interruptible() put the process in sleep for a given amount of
milliseconds
▶ udelay()/udelay_range() waste CPU cycles in order to save a couple of context
switches for a sub-millisecond period
▶ cpu_relax() does nothing, but may be used as a way to not being optimized out by
the compiler when busy looping for very short periods

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 Waiting when hardware is involved

▶ When hardware is involved in the waiting process

▶ but there is no interrupt available
▶ or because a context switch would be too expensive
▶ Specific polling I/O accessors may be used:
▶ Exhaustive list in include/iopoll.h
int read[bwlq]_poll_timeout[_atomic](addr, val, cond,
delay_us, timeout_us)
▶ addr: I/O memory location
▶ val: Content of the register pointed with
▶ cond: Boolean condition based on val
▶ delay_us: Polling delay between reads
▶ timeout_us: Timeout delay after which the operation fails and returns -ETIMEDOUT

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 Processes, scheduling and interrupts

Interrupt Management

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 Registering an interrupt handler 1/2
The managed API is recommended:
int devm_request_irq(struct device *dev, unsigned int irq, irq_handler_t handler,
unsigned long irq_flags, const char *devname, void *dev_id);
▶ device for automatic freeing at device or module release time.
▶ irq is the requested IRQ channel. For platform devices, use platform_get_irq()
to retrieve the interrupt number.
▶ handler is a pointer to the IRQ handler function
▶ irq_flags are option masks (see next slide)
▶ devname is the registered name (for /proc/interrupts). For platform drivers,
good idea to use pdev->name which allows to distinguish devices managed by the
same driver (example: 44e0b000.i2c).
▶ dev_id is an opaque pointer. It can typically be used to pass a pointer to a
per-device data structure. It cannot be NULL as it is used as an identifier for
freeing interrupts on a shared line.
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 Releasing an interrupt handler

void devm_free_irq(struct device *dev, unsigned int irq, void *dev_id);

▶ Explicitly release an interrupt handler. Done automatically in normal situations.

Defined in include/linux/interrupt.h

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 Registering an interrupt handler 2/2

Here are the most frequent irq_flags bit values in drivers (can be combined):
▶ IRQF_SHARED: interrupt channel can be shared by several devices.
▶ When an interrupt is received, all the interrupt handlers registered on the same
interrupt line are called.
▶ This requires a hardware status register telling whether an IRQ was raised or not.
▶ IRQF_ONESHOT: for use by threaded interrupts (see next slides). Keeping the
interrupt line disabled until the thread function has run.

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 Interrupt handler constraints

▶ No guarantee in which address space the system will be in when the interrupt
occurs: can’t transfer data to and from user space.
▶ Interrupt handler execution is managed by the CPU, not by the scheduler.
Handlers can’t run actions that may sleep, because there is nothing to resume
their execution. In particular, need to allocate memory with GFP_ATOMIC.
▶ Interrupt handlers are run with all interrupts disabled on the local CPU (see
[Link] Therefore, they have to complete their job
quickly enough, to avoiding blocking interrupts for too long.

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 /proc/interrupts on Raspberry Pi 2 (ARM, Linux 4.19)

CPU0 CPU1 CPU2 CPU3

17: 1005317 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 1 Edge [Link]
18: 36 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 2 Edge VCHIQ doorbell
40: 0 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 48 Edge bcm2708_fb DMA
42: 427715 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 50 Edge DMA IRQ
56: 478426356 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 64 Edge dwc_otg, dwc_otg_pcd, dwc_otg_hcd:usb1
80: 411468 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 88 Edge mmc0
81: 502 0 0 0 ARMCTRL-level 89 Edge uart-pl011
161: 0 0 0 0 bcm2836-timer 0 Edge arch_timer
162: 10963772 6378711 16583353 6406625 bcm2836-timer 1 Edge arch_timer
165: 0 0 0 0 bcm2836-pmu 9 Edge arm-pmu
FIQ: usb_fiq
IPI0: 0 0 0 0 CPU wakeup interrupts
IPI1: 0 0 0 0 Timer broadcast interrupts
IPI2: 2625198 4404191 7634127 3993714 Rescheduling interrupts
IPI3: 3140 56405 49483 59648 Function call interrupts
IPI4: 0 0 0 0 CPU stop interrupts
IPI5: 2167923 477097 5350168 412699 IRQ work interrupts
IPI6: 0 0 0 0 completion interrupts
Err: 0

Note: interrupt numbers shown on the left-most column are virtual numbers when the Device Tree is
used. The physical interrupt numbers can be found in /sys/kernel/debug/irq/irqs/<nr> files when
CONFIG_GENERIC_IRQ_DEBUGFS=y.

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 Interrupt handler prototype

▶ irqreturn_t foo_interrupt(int irq, void *dev_id)

▶ irq, the IRQ number
▶ dev_id, the per-device pointer that was passed to devm_request_irq()
▶ Return value
▶ IRQ_HANDLED: recognized and handled interrupt
▶ IRQ_NONE: used by the kernel to detect spurious interrupts, and disable the interrupt
line if none of the interrupt handlers has handled the interrupt.
▶ IRQ_WAKE_THREAD: handler requests to wake the handler thread (see next slides)

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 Typical interrupt handler’s job

▶ Acknowledge the interrupt to the device (otherwise no more interrupts will be

generated, or the interrupt will keep firing over and over again)
▶ Read/write data from/to the device
▶ Wake up any process waiting for such data, typically on a per-device wait queue:
wake_up_interruptible(&device_queue);

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 Threaded interrupts

The kernel also supports threaded interrupts:

▶ The interrupt handler is executed inside a thread.
▶ Allows to block during the interrupt handler, which is often needed for I2C/SPI
devices as the interrupt handler needs time to communicate with them.
▶ Allows to set a priority for the interrupt handler execution, which is useful for
real-time usage of Linux
int devm_request_threaded_irq(struct device *dev, unsigned int irq,
irq_handler_t handler, irq_handler_t thread_fn,
unsigned long flags, const char *name,
void *dev);

▶ handler, “hard IRQ” handler

▶ thread_fn, executed in a thread

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 Top half and bottom half processing

Splitting the execution of interrupt handlers in 2 parts

▶ Top half
▶ This is the real interrupt handler, which should complete as quickly as possible since
all interrupts are disabled. It takes the data out of the device and if substantial
post-processing is needed, schedule a bottom half to handle it.
▶ Bottom half
▶ Is the general Linux name for various mechanisms which allow to postpone the
handling of interrupt-related work. Implemented in Linux as softirqs, tasklets or
workqueues.

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 Top half and bottom half diagram

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 Softirqs

▶ Softirqs are a form of bottom half processing

▶ The softirqs handlers are executed with all interrupts enabled, and a given softirq
handler can run simultaneously on multiple CPUs
▶ They are executed once all interrupt handlers have completed, before the kernel
resumes scheduling processes, so sleeping is not allowed.
▶ The number of softirqs is fixed in the system, so softirqs are not directly used by
drivers, but by kernel subsystems (network, etc.)
▶ The list of softirqs is defined in include/linux/interrupt.h: HI_SOFTIRQ,
TIMER_SOFTIRQ, NET_TX_SOFTIRQ, NET_RX_SOFTIRQ, BLOCK_SOFTIRQ,
IRQ_POLL_SOFTIRQ, TASKLET_SOFTIRQ, SCHED_SOFTIRQ, HRTIMER_SOFTIRQ,
RCU_SOFTIRQ
▶ HI_SOFTIRQ and TASKLET_SOFTIRQ are used to execute tasklets

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 Example usage of softirqs - NAPI

NAPI = New API

▶ Interface in the Linux kernel used for interrupt mitigation in network drivers
▶ Principle: when the network traffic exceeds a given threshhold (”budget”), disable
network interrupts and consume incoming packets through a polling function,
instead of processing each new packet with an interrupt.
▶ This reduces overhead due to interrupts and yields better network throughput.
▶ The polling function is run by napi_schedule(), which uses NET_RX_SOFTIRQ.
▶ See [Link] for details
▶ See also our commented network driver on [Link]

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 Tasklets

▶ Tasklets are executed within the HI_SOFTIRQ and TASKLET_SOFTIRQ softirqs.

They are executed with all interrupts enabled, but a given tasklet is guaranteed to
execute on a single CPU at a time.
▶ Tasklets are typically created with the tasklet_init() function, when your driver
manages multiple devices, otherwise statically with DECLARE_TASKLET(). A
tasklet is simply implemented as a function. Tasklets can easily be used by
individual device drivers, as opposed to softirqs.
▶ The interrupt handler can schedule tasklet execution with:
▶ tasklet_schedule() to get it executed in TASKLET_SOFTIRQ
▶ tasklet_hi_schedule() to get it executed in HI_SOFTIRQ (highest priority)

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 Tasklet example: drivers/crypto/atmel-sha.c 1/2
/* The tasklet function */
static void atmel_sha_done_task(unsigned long data)
{
struct atmel_sha_dev *dd = (struct atmel_sha_dev *)data;
[...]
}

/* Probe function: registering the tasklet */

static int atmel_sha_probe(struct platform_device *pdev)
{
struct atmel_sha_dev *sha_dd; /* Per device structure */
[...]
platform_set_drvdata(pdev, sha_dd);
[...]
tasklet_init(&sha_dd->done_task, atmel_sha_done_task,
(unsigned long)sha_dd);
[...]
err = devm_request_irq(&pdev->dev, sha_dd->irq, atmel_sha_irq,
IRQF_SHARED, "atmel-sha", sha_dd);
[...]
}

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 Tasklet example: drivers/crypto/atmel-sha.c 2/2

/* Remove function: removing the tasklet */

static int atmel_sha_remove(struct platform_device *pdev)
{
static struct atmel_sha_dev *sha_dd;
sha_dd = platform_get_drvdata(pdev);
[...]
tasklet_kill(&sha_dd->done_task);
[...]
}

/* Interrupt handler: triggering execution of the tasklet */

static irqreturn_t atmel_sha_irq(int irq, void *dev_id)
{
struct atmel_sha_dev *sha_dd = dev_id;
[...]
tasklet_schedule(&sha_dd->done_task);
[...]
}

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 Workqueues

▶ Workqueues are a general mechanism for deferring work. It is not limited in usage
to handling interrupts. It can typically be used for background work which can be
scheduled.
▶ The function registered as workqueue is executed in a thread, which means:
▶ All interrupts are enabled
▶ Sleeping is allowed
▶ A workqueue, usually allocated in a per-device structure, is registered with
INIT_WORK() and typically triggered with queue_work() when using a dedicated
queue or schedule_work() when using the default queue
▶ The complete API, in include/linux/workqueue.h, provides many other
possibilities (creating its own workqueue threads, etc.)
▶ Example (drivers/crypto/atmel-i2c):
INIT_WORK(&work_data->work, atmel_i2c_work_handler);
schedule_work(&work_data->work);
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 Interrupt management summary

▶ Device driver
▶ In the probe() function, for each device, use devm_request_irq() to register an
interrupt handler for the device’s interrupt channel.
▶ Interrupt handler
▶ Called when an interrupt is raised.
▶ Acknowledge the interrupt
▶ If needed, schedule a per-device tasklet taking care of handling data.
▶ Wake up processes waiting for the data on a per-device queue
▶ Device driver
▶ In the remove() function, for each device, the interrupt handler is automatically
unregistered.

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 Practical lab - Interrupts

▶ Adding read capability to the character driver

developed earlier.
▶ Register an interrupt handler for each device.
▶ Waiting for data to be available in the read file
operation.
▶ Waking up the code when data are available
from the devices.

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 Concurrent Access to Resources: Locking

Concurrent Access to
Resources: Locking

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Sources of concurrency issues

▶ In terms of concurrency, the kernel has the same constraint as a multi-threaded

program: its state is global and visible in all executions contexts
▶ Concurrency arises because of
▶ Interrupts, which interrupts the current thread to execute an interrupt handler. They
may be using shared resources (memory addresses, hardware registers...)
▶ Kernel preemption, if enabled, causes the kernel to switch from the execution of one
thread to another. They may be using shared resources.
▶ Multiprocessing, in which case code is really executed in parallel on different
processors, and they may be using shared resources as well.
▶ The solution is to keep as much local state as possible and for the shared
resources that can’t be made local (such as hardware ones), use locking.

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 Concurrency protection with locks

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 Linux mutexes

mutex = mutual exclusion

▶ The kernel’s main locking primitive. It’s a binary lock. Note that counting locks
(semaphores) are also available, but used 30x less frequently.
▶ The process requesting the lock blocks when the lock is already held. Mutexes
can therefore only be used in contexts where sleeping is allowed.
▶ Mutex definition:
▶ #include <linux/mutex.h>
▶ Initializing a mutex statically (unusual case):
▶ DEFINE_MUTEX(name);
▶ Or initializing a mutex dynamically (the usual case, on a per-device basis):
▶ void mutex_init(struct mutex *lock);

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 Locking and unlocking mutexes 1/2

▶ void mutex_lock(struct mutex *lock);

▶ Tries to lock the mutex, sleeps otherwise.
▶ Caution: can’t be interrupted, resulting in processes you cannot kill!
▶ int mutex_lock_killable(struct mutex *lock);
▶ Same, but can be interrupted by a fatal (SIGKILL) signal. If interrupted, returns a
non zero value and doesn’t hold the lock. Test the return value!!!
▶ int mutex_lock_interruptible(struct mutex *lock);
▶ Same, but can be interrupted by any signal.

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 Locking and unlocking mutexes 2/2

▶ int mutex_trylock(struct mutex *lock);

▶ Never waits. Returns a non zero value if the mutex is not available.
▶ int mutex_is_locked(struct mutex *lock);
▶ Just tells whether the mutex is locked or not.
▶ void mutex_unlock(struct mutex *lock);
▶ Releases the lock. Do it as soon as you leave the critical section.

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 Spinlocks

▶ Locks to be used for code that is not allowed to sleep (interrupt handlers), or that
doesn’t want to sleep (critical sections). Be very careful not to call functions
which can sleep!
▶ Originally intended for multiprocessor systems
▶ Spinlocks never sleep and keep spinning in a loop until the lock is available.
▶ The critical section protected by a spinlock is not allowed to sleep.

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 Initializing spinlocks

▶ Statically (unusual)
▶ DEFINE_SPINLOCK(my_lock);
▶ Dynamically (the usual case, on a per-device basis)
▶ void spin_lock_init(spinlock_t *lock);

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 Using spinlocks 1/3

Several variants, depending on where the spinlock is called:

▶ void spin_lock(spinlock_t *lock);
▶ void spin_unlock(spinlock_t *lock);
▶ Used for locking in process context (critical sections in which you do not want to
sleep).
▶ Kernel preemption on the local CPU is disabled. We need to avoid deadlocks
because of preemption from processes that want to get the same lock:

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 Using spinlocks 2/3

▶ void spin_lock_irqsave(spinlock_t *lock, unsigned long flags);

▶ void spin_unlock_irqrestore(spinlock_t *lock, unsigned long flags);
▶ Disables / restores IRQs on the local CPU.
▶ Typically used when the lock can be accessed in both process and interrupt context.
▶ We need to avoid deadlocks because of interrupts that want to get the same lock.

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 Using spinlocks 3/3

▶ void spin_lock_bh(spinlock_t *lock);

▶ void spin_unlock_bh(spinlock_t *lock);
▶ Disables software interrupts, but not hardware ones.
▶ Useful to protect shared data accessed in process context and in a soft interrupt
(bottom half ).
▶ No need to disable hardware interrupts in this case.
▶ Note that reader / writer spinlocks also exist, allowing for multiple simultaneous
readers.

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 Spinlock example

▶ From drivers/tty/serial/uartlite.c
▶ Spinlock structure embedded into struct uart_port

struct uart_port {
spinlock_t lock;
/* Other fields */
};
▶ Spinlock taken/released with protection against interrupts

static unsigned int ulite_tx_empty(struct uart_port *port) {

unsigned long flags;

spin_lock_irqsave(&port->lock, flags);
/* Do something */
spin_unlock_irqrestore(&port->lock, flags);
}
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 More deadlock situations

They can lock up your system. Make sure they never happen!

Rule 1: don’t call a function that can try to Rule 2: if you need multiple locks, always
get access to the same lock acquire them in the same order!

Get Lock 1 Call to Function 2

Get Lock 1 Get Lock 2

Deadlock!
Deadlock!
Wait for Lock 1
Get Lock 2 Get Lock 1

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 Debugging locking and concurrency issues

▶ Lock debugging: prove locking correctness

▶ CONFIG_PROVE_LOCKING
▶ Adds instrumentation to kernel locking code
▶ Detect violations of locking rules during system life, such as:
▶ Locks acquired in different order (keeps track of locking sequences and compares
them).
▶ Spinlocks acquired in interrupt handlers and also in process context when interrupts
are enabled.
▶ Not suitable for production systems but acceptable overhead in development.
▶ See locking/lockdep-design for details
▶ Kernel Concurrency SANitizer framework
▶ CONFIG_KCSAN, introduced in Linux 5.8.
▶ Can find concurrency issues in your system.
▶ See [Link] for details.

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 Alternatives to locking

As we have just seen, locking can have a strong negative impact on system
performance. In some situations, you could do without it.
▶ By using lock-free algorithms like Read Copy Update (RCU).
▶ RCU API available in the kernel (See
[Link]
▶ When available, use atomic operations.

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 Atomic variables 1/2
▶ Useful when the shared resource is an integer value
▶ Even an instruction like n++ is not guaranteed to be atomic on all processors!
▶ Atomic operations definitions
▶ #include <asm/atomic.h>
▶ atomic_t
▶ Contains a signed integer (at least 24 bits)
▶ Atomic operations (main ones)
▶ Set or read the counter:
▶ void atomic_set(atomic_t *v, int i);
▶ int atomic_read(atomic_t *v);
▶ Operations without return value:
▶ void atomic_inc(atomic_t *v);
▶ void atomic_dec(atomic_t *v);
▶ void atomic_add(int i, atomic_t *v);
▶ void atomic_sub(int i, atomic_t *v);
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 Atomic variables 2/2

▶ Similar functions testing the result:

▶ int atomic_inc_and_test(...);
▶ int atomic_dec_and_test(...);
▶ int atomic_sub_and_test(...);
▶ Functions returning the new value:
▶ int atomic_inc_return(...);
▶ int atomic_dec_return(...);
▶ int atomic_add_return(...);
▶ int atomic_sub_return(...);

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 Atomic bit operations

▶ Supply very fast, atomic operations

▶ On most platforms, apply to an unsigned long * type.
▶ Apply to a void * type on a few others.
▶ Set, clear, toggle a given bit:
▶ void set_bit(int nr, unsigned long *addr);
▶ void clear_bit(int nr, unsigned long *addr);
▶ void change_bit(int nr, unsigned long *addr);
▶ Test bit value:
▶ int test_bit(int nr, unsigned long *addr);
▶ Test and modify (return the previous value):
▶ int test_and_set_bit(...);
▶ int test_and_clear_bit(...);
▶ int test_and_change_bit(...);
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 Kernel locking: summary and references
Further reading: see the classical
dining philosophers problem for a
▶ Use mutexes in code that is allowed to sleep nice illustration of
▶ Use spinlocks in code that is not allowed to sleep synchronization and concurrency
issues.
(interrupts) or for which sleeping would be too
costly (critical sections)
▶ Use atomic operations to protect integers or
addresses
See kernel-hacking/locking in kernel documentation
for many details about kernel locking mechanisms.

Image source: Wikipedia

([Link]

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 Practical lab - Locking

▶ Add locking to the driver to prevent concurrent

accesses to shared resources

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 Kernel debugging

Kernel debugging

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Debugging using messages (1)

Three APIs are available

▶ The old printk(), no longer recommended for new debugging messages
▶ The pr_*() family of functions: pr_emerg(), pr_alert(), pr_crit(), pr_err(),
pr_warning(), pr_notice(), pr_info(), pr_cont()
and the special pr_debug() (see next pages)
▶ Defined in include/linux/printk.h
▶ They take a classic format string with arguments
▶ Example:
pr_info("Booting CPU %d\n", cpu);
▶ Here’s what you get in the kernel log:
[ 202.350064] Booting CPU 1

▶ print_hex_dump_debug(): useful to dump a buffer with hexdump like display

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 Debugging using messages (2)

▶ The dev_*() family of functions: dev_emerg(), dev_alert(), dev_crit(),

dev_err(), dev_warn(), dev_notice(), dev_info()
and the special dev_dbg() (see next page)
▶ They take a pointer to struct device as first argument, and then a format string
with arguments
▶ Defined in include/linux/dev_printk.h
▶ To be used in drivers integrated with the Linux device model
▶ Example:
dev_info(&pdev->dev, "in probe\n");
▶ Here’s what you get in the kernel log:
[ 25.878382] serial [Link]: in probe
[ 25.884873] serial [Link]: in probe

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 pr_debug() and dev_dbg()

▶ When the driver is compiled with DEBUG defined, all these messages are compiled
and printed at the debug level. DEBUG can be defined by #define DEBUG at the
beginning of the driver, or using ccflags-$(CONFIG_DRIVER) += -DDEBUG in the
Makefile
▶ When the kernel is compiled with CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG, then these messages
can dynamically be enabled on a per-file, per-module or per-message basis
▶ Details in admin-guide/dynamic-debug-howto
▶ Very powerful feature to only get the debug messages you’re interested in.
▶ When neither DEBUG nor CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG are used, these messages are not
compiled in.

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 Configuring the priority

▶ Each message is associated to a priority, ranging from 0 for emergency to 7 for

debug, as specified in include/linux/kern_levels.h.
▶ All the messages, regardless of their priority, are stored in the kernel log ring buffer
▶ Typically accessed using the dmesg command
▶ Some of the messages may appear on the console, depending on their priority and
the configuration of
▶ The loglevel kernel parameter, which defines the priority number below which
messages are displayed on the console. Details in admin-guide/kernel-parameters.
Examples: loglevel=0: no message, loglevel=8: all messages
▶ The value of /proc/sys/kernel/printk, which allows to change at runtime the
priority above which messages are displayed on the console. Details in
admin-guide/sysctl/kernel

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 DebugFS

A virtual filesystem to export debugging information to user space.

▶ Kernel configuration: CONFIG_DEBUG_FS
▶ Kernel hacking -> Debug Filesystem
▶ The debugging interface disappears when Debugfs is configured out.
▶ You can mount it as follows:
▶ sudo mount -t debugfs none /sys/kernel/debug
▶ First described on [Link]
▶ API documented in the Linux Kernel Filesystem API: filesystems (section The
debugfs filesystem)

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 DebugFS API
▶ Create a sub-directory for your driver:
▶ struct dentry *debugfs_create_dir(const char *name,
struct dentry *parent);
▶ Expose an integer as a file in DebugFS. Example:
▶ struct dentry *debugfs_create_u8
(const char *name, mode_t mode, struct dentry *parent,
u8 *value);
▶ u8, u16, u32, u64 for decimal representation
▶ x8, x16, x32, x64 for hexadecimal representation
▶ Expose a binary blob as a file in DebugFS:
▶ struct dentry *debugfs_create_blob(const char *name,
mode_t mode, struct dentry *parent,
struct debugfs_blob_wrapper *blob);
▶ Also possible to support writable DebugFS files or customize the output using the
more generic debugfs_create_file() function.
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 Deprecated debugging mechanisms

Some additional debugging mechanisms, whose usage is now considered deprecated

▶ Adding special ioctl() commands for debugging purposes. DebugFS is preferred.
▶ Adding special entries in the proc filesystem. DebugFS is preferred.
▶ Adding special entries in the sysfs filesystem. DebugFS is preferred.
▶ Using printk(). The pr_*() and dev_*() functions are preferred.

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 Using Magic SysRq
Functionnality provided by serial drivers
▶ Allows to run multiple debug / rescue commands even when the kernel seems to
be in deep trouble
▶ On PC: press [Alt] + [Prnt Scrn] + <character> simultaneously
([SysRq] = [Alt] + [Prnt Scrn])
▶ On embedded: in the console, send a break character
(Picocom: press [Ctrl] + a followed by [Ctrl] + \ ), then press <character>
▶ Example commands:
▶ h: show available commands
▶ s: sync all mounted filesystems
▶ b: reboot the system
▶ n: makes RT processes nice-able.
▶ w: shows the kernel stack of all sleeping processes
▶ t: shows the kernel stack of all running processes
▶ You can even register your own!
▶ Detailed in admin-guide/sysrq
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 kgdb - A kernel debugger

▶ CONFIG_KGDB in Kernel hacking.

▶ The execution of the kernel is fully controlled by gdb from another machine,
connected through a serial line.
▶ Can do almost everything, including inserting breakpoints in interrupt handlers.
▶ Feature supported for the most popular CPU architectures

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 Using kgdb 1/2

▶ Details available in the kernel documentation: dev-tools/kgdb

▶ Recommended to turn on CONFIG_FRAME_POINTER to aid in producing more
reliable stack backtraces in gdb.
▶ You must include a kgdb I/O driver. One of them is kgdb over serial console
(kgdboc: kgdb over console, enabled by CONFIG_KGDB_SERIAL_CONSOLE)
▶ Configure kgdboc at boot time by passing to the kernel:
▶ kgdboc=<tty-device>,<bauds>.
▶ For example: kgdboc=ttyS0,115200
▶ Or at runtime using sysfs:
▶ echo ttyS0 > /sys/module/kgdboc/parameters/kgdboc

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 Using kgdb 2/2

▶ Then also pass kgdbwait to the kernel: it makes kgdb wait for a debugger
connection.
▶ Boot your kernel, and when the console is initialized, interrupt the kernel with a
break character and then g in the serial console (see our Magic SysRq
explanations).
▶ On your workstation, start gdb as follows:
▶ arm-linux-gdb ./vmlinux
▶ (gdb) set remotebaud 115200
▶ (gdb) target remote /dev/ttyS0
▶ Once connected, you can debug a kernel the way you would debug an application
program.

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 Debugging with a JTAG interface
Two types of JTAG dongles
▶ The ones offering a gdb compatible interface, over a serial port or an Ethernet
connection. gdb can directly connect to them.
▶ The ones not offering a gdb compatible interface are generally supported by
OpenOCD (Open On Chip Debugger): [Link]
▶ OpenOCD is the bridge between the gdb debugging language and the JTAG
interface of the target CPU.
▶ See the very complete documentation: [Link]
▶ For each board, you’ll need an OpenOCD configuration file (ask your supplier)

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 More kernel debugging tips

▶ Make sure CONFIG_KALLSYMS_ALL is enabled

▶ Is turned on by default
▶ To get oops messages with symbol names instead of raw addresses
▶ On ARM, if your kernel doesn’t boot or hangs without any message, you can
activate early debugging options (CONFIG_DEBUG_LL and CONFIG_EARLYPRINTK),
and add earlyprintk to the kernel command line.

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 Practical lab - Kernel debugging

▶ Use the dynamic debug feature.

▶ Add debugfs entries
▶ Load a broken driver and see it crash
▶ Analyze the error information dumped by the
kernel.
▶ Disassemble the code and locate the exact C
instruction which caused the failure.

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 Porting the Linux kernel to an ARM board

Porting the Linux kernel

to an ARM board

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 370/467
 Porting the Linux kernel

▶ The Linux kernel supports a lot of different CPU architectures

▶ Each of them is maintained by a different group of contributors
▶ See the MAINTAINERS file for details
▶ The organization of the source code and the methods to port the Linux kernel to
a new board are therefore very architecture-dependent
▶ For example, some architectures use the Device Tree, some do not.
▶ This presentation is mainly focused on the ARM (32-bit) architecture

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 Architecture, CPU and Machine

▶ In the source tree, each architecture has its own directory

▶ arch/arm/ for the ARM 32-bit architecture
▶ arch/arm64/ for the ARM 64-bit architecture
▶ The arch/arm/ directory contains generic ARM code
▶ boot/, common/, configs/, kernel/, lib/, mm/, nwfpe/, vfp/, tools/ and several
others.
▶ And many directories for different SoC families
▶ mach-* directories: mach-pxa/ for PXA SoCs, mach-imx/ for Freescale iMX SoCs,
etc. They essentially contain:
▶ a small SoC description file
▶ power management code
▶ SMP code
▶ Some SoC families share some code, in directories named plat-*
▶ Device Tree source files are in arch/arm/boot/dts/

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 Before the Device Tree and ARM cleanup

▶ Until 2011, the ARM architecture wasn’t using the Device Tree, and a large
portion of the SoC support was located in arch/arm/mach-<soc>.
▶ Each board supported by the kernel was associated to an unique machine ID.
▶ The entire list of machine ID can be downloaded at
[Link] and one
could freely register an additional one.
▶ The Linux kernel was defining a machine structure for each board, which
associates the machine ID with a set of information and callbacks.
▶ The bootloader had to pass the machine ID to the kernel in a specific ARM
register.
This way, the kernel knew what board it was booting on, and which init callbacks it
had to execute.

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 The Device Tree and the ARM cleanup

▶ As the ARM architecture gained significantly in popularity, some major refactoring

was needed.
▶ First, the Device Tree was introduced on ARM: instead of using C code to
describe SoCs and boards, a specialized language is used.
▶ Second, many driver infrastructures were created to replace custom code in
arch/arm/mach-<soc>:
▶ The common clock framework in drivers/clk/
▶ The pinctrl subsystem in drivers/pinctrl/
▶ The irqchip subsystem in drivers/irqchip/
▶ The clocksource subsystem in drivers/clocksource/
▶ The amount of code in mach-<soc> has now significantly reduced.

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 Adding the support for a new ARM board

Provided the SoC used on your board is supported by the Linux kernel:
1. Create a Device Tree file in arch/arm/boot/dts/, generally named
<soc-name>-<board-name>.dts, and make it include the relevant SoC .dtsi
file.
▶ Your Device Tree will describe all the SoC peripherals that are enabled, the pin
muxing, as well as all the devices on the board.
2. Modify arch/arm/boot/dts/Makefile to make sure your Device Tree gets built
as a DTB during the kernel build.
3. Tweak an existing configuration that matches your SoC and save it as
<board-name>_defconfig in arch/arm/configs/
4. If needed, develop the missing device drivers for the devices that are on your
board outside the SoC.

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 Studying the Crystalfontz CFA-10036 platform

After using a platform based on the AM335x processor from Texas Instruments, let’s
study another platform Bootlin has worked on specifically.
▶ Crystalfontz CFA-10036
▶ Uses the Freescale iMX28 SoC, from the MXS family.
▶ 128MB of RAM
▶ 1 serial port, 1 LED
▶ 1 I2C bus, equipped with an OLED display
▶ 1 SD-Card slot

Disclaimer: while the way of describing a board has slightly evolved over the past
years, the official Crystalfontz support has not. As our incentive is to show up-to-date
code and share best practices, the next snippets of code may diverge a little compared
to the upstream files.

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, header

▶ SPDX license tag

▶ Mandatory Device Tree language definition

/dts-v1/;
▶ Include the .dtsi file describing the SoC

#include "[Link]"
▶ Start the root of the tree (named /) then describe the board
▶ A human-readable string to describe the machine (shown at boot time)

model = "Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Board";

▶ A list of compatible strings, from the most specific one to the most general one.
Mandatory to execute the right SoC specific initializations and board specific code.

compatible = "crystalfontz,cfa10036", "fsl,imx28";

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036, backbone
▶ Definition of the buses and peripherals
/ {
/* Define here 'standalone' peripherals and internal buses */
memory {
device_type = "memory";
reg = <0x40000000 0x8000000>; /* 128 MB */
};
apb@80000000 {
apbh@80000000 {
/* Define apbh peripherals here */
apbx@80040000 {
/* Define apbx peripherals here */
};
};
};
};
/* Reference here existing nodes with their labels */
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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, enable already described devices

▶ The CFA-10036 has one debug UART. It is described in the iMX28 DTSI file, so
the corresponding controller should be referenced in the board DTS and enabled:

&duart {
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&duart_pins_b>;
status = "okay";
};
▶ It also features an USB port which is described in the SoC DTSI but needs to be
enabled:
&usb0 {
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&usb0_otg_cfa10036>;
status = "okay";
};

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, fully describe additional devices

▶ The I2C bus with a Solomon SSD1306 OLED display connected on it must be
described entirely at the location where it belongs:
apbc@80040000 {
i2c0: i2c@18000 { /* This means physical offset 0x80058000 */
reg = <0x18000 0x1000>;
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&i2c0_pins_b>;
status = "okay";
clock-frequency = <400000>;

ssd1306: oled@3c {
compatible = "solomon,ssd1306fb-i2c";
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&ssd1306_cfa10036>;
reg = <0x3c>;
reset-gpios = <&gpio2 7 0>;
solomon,height = <32>;
solomon,width = <128>;
solomon,page-offset = <0>;
};
};

▶ Mind the display’s pin configuration that has not yet been described

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, LEDs

▶ One LED is connected to this platform, let’s describe it as well

/ {
leds {
compatible = "gpio-leds";
pinctrl-names = "default";
pinctrl-0 = <&led_pins_cfa10036>;

power {
gpios = <&gpio3 4 1>;
default-state = "on";
};
};
▶ Also mind the pin configuration that we can define at any place

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, muxing

▶ Definition of a few pins that will be muxed as GPIO, for LEDs and reset.
&pinctrl {
ssd1306_cfa10036: ssd1306-10036@0 {
reg = <0>;
fsl,pinmux-ids = <0x2073>; /* MX28_PAD_SSP0_D7__GPIO_2_7 */
fsl,drive-strength = <0>;
fsl,voltage = <1>;
fsl,pull-up = <0>;
};

led_pins_cfa10036: leds-10036@0 {
reg = <0>;
fsl,pinmux-ids = <0x3043>; /* MX28_PAD_AUART1_RX__GPIO_3_4 */
fsl,drive-strength = <0>;
fsl,voltage = <1>;
fsl,pull-up = <0>;
};
};

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036 Device Tree, Breakout Boards

▶ The CFA-10036 can be plugged in other breakout boards, and the device tree also
allows us to describe this, using includes. For example, the CFA-10057:

#include "[Link]"
▶ This allows to have a layered description. This can also be done for boards that
have a lot in common, like the BeagleBone and the BeagleBone Black, or the
AT91 SAMA5D3-based boards.

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 Crystalfontz CFA-10036: build the DTB

▶ To ensure that the Device Tree Blob gets built for this board Device Tree Source,
one need to ensure it is listed in arch/arm/boot/dts/Makefile:
dtb-$(CONFIG_ARCH_MXS) +=
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link] \
[Link]

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 Understanding the SoC support

▶ Let’s consider another ARM platform here for the kernel side of the support: the
Marvell Armada 370/XP.
▶ For this platform, the core of the SoC support is located in
arch/arm/mach-mvebu/
▶ The board-v7.c file (see code on the next slide) contains the ”entry point” of the
SoC definition, the DT_MACHINE_START .. MACHINE_END definition:
▶ Defines the list of platform compatible strings that will match this platform, in this
case marvell,armada-370-xp. This allows the kernel to know which DT_MACHINE
structure to use depending on the DTB that is passed at boot time.
▶ Defines various callbacks for the platform initialization, the most important one being
the .init_machine callback, running initialization code for the associated SoC.

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 arch/arm/mach-mvebu/board-v7.c (Linux 5.3)

static void __init mvebu_dt_init(void)

{
if (of_machine_is_compatible("marvell,armadaxp"))
i2c_quirk();
}

static void __init armada_370_xp_dt_fixup(void)

{
#ifdef CONFIG_SMP
smp_set_ops(smp_ops(armada_xp_smp_ops));
#endif
}

static const char * const armada_370_xp_dt_compat[] __initconst = {

"marvell,armada-370-xp",
NULL,
};

DT_MACHINE_START(ARMADA_370_XP_DT, "Marvell Armada 370/XP (Device Tree)")

.l2c_aux_val = 0,
.l2c_aux_mask = ~0,
.init_machine = mvebu_dt_init,
.init_irq = mvebu_init_irq,
.restart = mvebu_restart,
.reserve = mvebu_memblock_reserve,
.dt_compat = armada_370_xp_dt_compat,
.dt_fixup = armada_370_xp_dt_fixup,
MACHINE_END

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 Components of the minimal SoC support

The minimal SoC support consists of

▶ An SoC entry point file, arch/arm/mach-mvebu/board-v7.c
▶ At least one SoC .dtsi DT and one board .dts DT, in arch/arm/boot/dts/
▶ An interrupt controller driver, drivers/irqchip/irq-armada-370-xp.c
▶ A timer driver, drivers/clocksource/timer-armada-370-xp.c
▶ An earlyprintk implementation to get early messages from the console, arch/arm/[Link]
and arch/arm/include/debug/
▶ A serial port driver in drivers/tty/serial/. For Armada 370/XP, the 8250 driver
drivers/tty/serial/8250/ is used.
This allows to boot a minimal system up to user space, using a root filesystem in
initramfs.

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 Extending the minimal SoC support

Once the minimal SoC support is in place, the following core components should be
added:
▶ Support for the clocks. Usually requires some clock drivers, as well as DT
representations of the clocks. See drivers/clk/mvebu/ for Armada 370/XP
clock drivers.
▶ Support for pin muxing, through the pinctrl subsystem. See
drivers/pinctrl/mvebu/ for the Armada 370/XP drivers.
▶ Support for GPIOs, through the GPIO subsystem. See
drivers/gpio/gpio-mvebu.c for the Armada 370/XP GPIO driver.
▶ Support for SMP, through struct smp_operations. See
arch/arm/mach-mvebu/platsmp.c.

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 Adding controller drivers

Once the core pieces of the SoC support have been implemented, the remaining part is
to add drivers for the different hardware blocks:
▶ Ethernet controller driver, in drivers/net/ethernet/marvell/mvneta.c
▶ SATA controller driver, in drivers/ata/sata_mv.c
▶ I2C controller driver, in drivers/i2c/busses/i2c-mv64xxx.c
▶ SPI controller driver, in drivers/spi/spi-orion.c
▶ PCIe controller driver, in drivers/pci/controller/pci-mvebu.c
▶ USB controller driver, in drivers/usb/host/ehci-orion.c
▶ etc.

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 Porting the Linux kernel: further reading

▶ Gregory Clement, Your newer ARM64

SoC Linux support check-list!
[Link]
▶ Thomas Petazzoni, Your new ARM
SoC Linux support check-list!
[Link]
▶ Our technical presentations on various
kernel subsystems:
[Link]

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 Power Management

Power Management

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 391/467
 PM building blocks

▶ Several power management building blocks

▶ Clock framework
▶ Suspend and resume
▶ CPUidle
▶ Runtime power management
▶ Power domains
▶ Frequency and voltage scaling
▶ Independent building blocks that can be improved gradually during development

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 Clock framework (1)

▶ Generic framework to manage clocks used by devices in the system

▶ Allows to reference count clock users and to shutdown the unused clocks to save
power
▶ Simple API described in include/linux/clk.h.
▶ clk_get() to lookup and obtain a reference to a clock producer
▶ clk_enable() to inform the system when the clock source should be running
▶ clk_disable() to inform the system when the clock source is no longer required.
▶ clk_put() to free the clock source
▶ clk_get_rate() to obtain the current clock rate (in Hz) for a clock source
▶ clk_set_rate() to set the current clock rate (in Hz) of a clock source

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 393/467
 Clock framework (2)

The common clock framework

▶ Allows to declare the available clocks and their association to devices in the
Device Tree
▶ Provides a debugfs representation of the clock tree
▶ Is implemented in drivers/clk/

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 Diagram overview of the common clock framework

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 Clock framework (3)

The interface of the CCF divided into two halves:

▶ Common Clock Framework core
▶ Common definition of struct clk
▶ Common implementation of the clk.h API (defined in drivers/clk/clk.c)
▶ struct clk_ops: operations invoked by the clk API implementation
▶ Not supposed to be modified when adding a new driver
▶ Hardware-specific
▶ Callbacks registered with struct clk_ops and the corresponding hardware-specific
structures
▶ Has to be written for each new hardware clock
▶ Example: drivers/clk/mvebu/clk-cpu.c

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 Clock framework (4)

Hardware clock operations: device tree

▶ The device tree is the mandatory way to declare a clock and to get its
resources, as for any other driver using DT we have to:
▶ Parse the device tree to setup the clock: the resources but also the properties are
retrieved.
▶ Declare the compatible clocks and associate each to an initialization function
using CLK_OF_DECLARE()
▶ Example: arch/arm/boot/dts/[Link] and
drivers/clk/mvebu/armada-xp.c
See our presentation about the Clock Framework for more details:
[Link]

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 Suspend and resume (to / from RAM)

▶ Infrastructure in the kernel to support suspend and resume

▶ System on Chip hooks
▶ Define operations (at least valid() and enter()) struct platform_suspend_ops
structure. See the documentation for this structure for details about possible
operations and the way they are used.
▶ Registered using the suspend_set_ops() function
▶ See arch/arm/mach-at91/pm.c
▶ Device driver hooks
▶ pm operations (suspend() and resume() hooks) in the struct device_driver as a
struct dev_pm_ops structure in (struct platform_driver, struct usb_driver,
etc.)
▶ See drivers/net/ethernet/cadence/macb_main.c
▶ Hibernate to disk is based on suspend to RAM, copying the RAM contents (after
a simulated suspend) to a swap partition.

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 Triggering suspend / hibernate

▶ struct suspend_ops functions are called by the enter_state() function.

enter_state() also takes care of executing the suspend and resume functions for
your devices.
▶ Read kernel/power/suspend.c
▶ The execution of this function can be triggered from user space:
▶ echo mem > /sys/power/state (suspend to RAM)
▶ echo disk > /sys/power/state (hibernate to disk)
▶ Systemd can also manage suspend and hibernate for you, and offers
customizations
▶ systemctl suspend or systemctl hibernate.
▶ See [Link]
[Link]

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 Saving power in the idle loop

▶ The idle loop is what you run when there’s nothing left to run in the system.
▶ arch_cpu_idle() implemented in all architectures in
arch/<arch>/kernel/process.c
▶ Example: arch/arm/kernel/process.c
▶ The CPU can run power saving HLT instructions, enter NAP mode, and even
disable the timers (tickless systems).
▶ See also [Link]

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 Managing idle

Adding support for multiple idle levels

▶ Modern CPUs have several sleep states offering different power savings with
associated wake up latencies
▶ The dynamic tick feature allows to remove the periodic timer tick to save power,
and to know when the next event is scheduled, for smarter sleeps.
▶ CPUidle infrastructure to change sleep states
▶ Platform-specific driver defining sleep states and transition operations
▶ Platform-independent governors
▶ Available in particular for x86/ACPI and most ARM SoCs
▶ See admin-guide/pm/cpuidle in kernel documentation.

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 PowerTOP

[Link]
▶ With dynamic ticks, allows to fix parts of kernel code and applications that wake
up the system too often.
▶ PowerTOP allows to track the worst offenders
▶ Now available on ARM cpus implementing CPUidle
▶ Also gives you useful hints for reducing power.
▶ Try it on your x86 laptop:
sudo powertop

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 Runtime power management

▶ Managing per-device idle, each device being managed by its device driver
independently from others.
▶ According to the kernel configuration interface: Enable functionality allowing I/O
devices to be put into energy-saving (low power) states at run time (or
autosuspended) after a specified period of inactivity and woken up in response to
a hardware-generated wake-up event or a driver’s request.
▶ New hooks must be added to the drivers: runtime_suspend(),
runtime_resume(), runtime_idle() in the struct dev_pm_ops structure in
struct device_driver.
▶ API and details on power/runtime_pm
▶ See drivers/net/ethernet/cadence/macb_main.c again.

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 Generic PM Domains (genpd)

▶ Generic infrastructure to implement power domains based on Device Tree

descriptions, allowing to group devices by the physical power domain they belong
to. This sits at the same level as bus type for calling PM hooks.
▶ All the devices in the same PD get the same state at the same time.
▶ Specifications and examples available at
Documentation/devicetree/bindings/power/power_domain.txt
▶ Driver example: drivers/soc/rockchip/pm_domains.c
(rockchip_pd_power_on(), rockchip_pd_power_off(),
rockchip_pm_add_one_domain()...)
▶ DT example: look for rockchip,px30-power-controller
(arch/arm64/boot/dts/rockchip/[Link]) and find PD definitions and
corresponding devices.
▶ See Kevin Hilman’s talk at Kernel Recipes 2017:
[Link]
- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 404/467
 Frequency and voltage scaling (1)

Frequency and voltage scaling possible through the cpufreq kernel infrastructure.
▶ Generic infrastructure: drivers/cpufreq/cpufreq.c and
include/linux/cpufreq.h
▶ Generic governors, responsible for deciding frequency and voltage transitions
▶ performance: maximum frequency
▶ powersave: minimum frequency
▶ ondemand: measures CPU consumption to adjust frequency
▶ conservative: often better than ondemand. Only increases frequency gradually
when the CPU gets loaded.
▶ userspace: leaves the decision to a user space daemon.
▶ This infrastructure can be controlled from
/sys/devices/system/cpu/cpu<n>/cpufreq/

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 Frequency and voltage scaling (2)

▶ CPU frequency drivers are in drivers/cpufreq/. Example:

drivers/cpufreq/omap-cpufreq.c
▶ Must implement the operations of the cpufreq_driver structure and register
them using cpufreq_register_driver()
▶ init() for initialization
▶ exit() for cleanup
▶ verify() to verify the user-chosen policy
▶ setpolicy() or target() to actually perform the frequency change
▶ See documentation in cpu-freq/ for useful explanations

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 Regulator framework

▶ Modern embedded platforms have hardware responsible for voltage and current
regulation
▶ The regulator framework allows to take advantage of this hardware to save power
when parts of the system are unused
▶ A consumer interface for device drivers (i.e. users)
▶ Regulator driver interface for regulator drivers
▶ Machine interface for board configuration
▶ sysfs interface for user space
▶ See power/regulator/ in kernel documentation.

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 BSP work for a new board

In case you just need to create a BSP for your board, and your CPU already has full
PM support, you should just need to:
▶ Create clock definitions and bind your devices to them.
▶ Implement PM handlers (suspend, resume) in the drivers for your board specific
devices.
▶ Implement runtime PM handlers in your drivers.
▶ Implement board specific power management if needed (mainly battery
management)
▶ Implement regulator framework hooks for your board if needed.
▶ Attach on-board devices to PM domains if needed
▶ All other parts of the PM infrastructure should be already there: suspend /
resume, cpuidle, cpu frequency and voltage scaling, PM domains.

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 Useful resources

▶ power/ in kernel documentation.

▶ Will give you many useful details.
▶ Introduction to kernel power management, Kevin Hilman (Kernel Recipes 2015)
▶ [Link]

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 The kernel development and contribution process

The kernel development

and contribution process

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

- Kernel, drivers and embedded Linux - Development, consulting, training and support - [Link] 410/467
 The kernel development and contribution process

Linux versioning scheme and development

process

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 Linux versioning scheme

▶ Until 2003, there was a new “stable” release branch of Linux every 2 or 3 years
(2.0, 2.2, 2.4). Development branches took 2-3 years to be merged (too slow!).
▶ Since 2003, there is a new official release of Linux about every 10 weeks:
▶ Versions 2.6 (Dec. 2003) to 2.6.39 (May 2011)
▶ Versions 3.0 (Jul. 2011) to 3.19 (Feb. 2015)
▶ Versions 4.0 (Apr. 2015) to 4.20 (Dec. 2018)
▶ Version 5.0 was released in Mar. 2019.
▶ Features are added to the kernel in a progressive way. Since 2003, kernel
developers have managed to do so without having to introduce a massively
incompatible development branch.
▶ For each release, there are bugfix and security updates called stable releases:
5.0.1, 5.0.2, etc.

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 Linux development model
Using merge and bug fixing windows

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 Need for long term support (1)

▶ Issue: bug and security fixes only released for most recent kernel versions.
▶ Solution: the last release of each year is made an LTS (Long Term Support)
release, and is supposed to be supported (and receive bug and security fixes) for
up to 6 years.

Captured on [Link] in Nov.

2021, following the Releases link.

▶ Example at Google: starting from Android O (2017), all new Android devices will
have to run such an LTS kernel.

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 Need for long term support (2)

▶ You could also get long term support from a commercial embedded Linux
provider.
▶ Wind River Linux can be supported for up to 15 years.
▶ Ubuntu Core can be supported for up to 10 years.
▶ ”If you are not using a supported distribution kernel, or a stable / longterm kernel,
you have an insecure kernel” - Greg KH, 2019
Some vulnerabilities are fixed in stable without ever getting a CVE.
▶ The Civil Infrastructure Platform project is an industry / Linux Foundation effort
to support selected LTS versions (starting with 4.4) much longer (> 10 years).
See [Link]

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 What’s new in each Linux release? (1)

The official list of changes for each Linux release is just a huge list of individual
patches!
commit aa6e52a35d388e730f4df0ec2ec48294590cc459
Author: Thomas Petazzoni <[Link]@[Link]>
Date: Wed Jul 13 11:29:17 2011 +0200

at91: at91-ohci: support overcurrent notification

Several USB power switches (AIC1526 or MIC2026) have a digital output

that is used to notify that an overcurrent situation is taking
place. This digital outputs are typically connected to GPIO inputs of
the processor and can be used to be notified of these overcurrent
situations.

Therefore, we add a new overcurrent_pin[] array in the at91_usbh_data

structure so that boards can tell the AT91 OHCI driver which pins are
used for the overcurrent notification, and an overcurrent_supported
boolean to tell the driver whether overcurrent is supported or not.

The code has been largely borrowed from ohci-da8xx.c and

ohci-s3c2410.c.

Signed-off-by: Thomas Petazzoni <[Link]@[Link]>

Signed-off-by: Nicolas Ferre <[Link]@[Link]>

Very difficult to find out the key changes and to get the global picture out of individual
changes.

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 What’s new in each Linux release? (2)

Fortunately, there are some useful resources available

▶ [Link]
In depth coverage of the new features in each kernel release
▶ [Link]
Coverage of the features accepted in each merge window

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 The kernel development and contribution process

Contributing to the Linux kernel

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 Getting help and reporting bugs

▶ If you are using a custom kernel from a hardware vendor, contact that company.
The community will have less interest supporting a custom kernel.
▶ Otherwise, or if this doesn’t work, try to reproduce the issue on the latest version
of the kernel.
▶ Make sure you investigate the issue as much as you can: see
admin-guide/bug-bisect
▶ Check for previous bugs reports. Use web search engines, accessing public mailing
list archives.
▶ If you’re the first to face the issue, it’s very useful for others to report it, even if
you cannot investigate it further.
▶ If the subsystem you report a bug on has a mailing list, use it. Otherwise, contact
the official maintainer (see the MAINTAINERS file). Always give as many useful
details as possible.

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 How to Become a Kernel Developer?

Recommended resources
▶ See process/submitting-patches for guidelines and
[Link] for very helpful advice to have
your changes merged upstream (by Rik van Riel).
▶ Watch the Write and Submit your first Linux kernel Patch talk by Greg. K.H:
[Link]
▶ How to Participate in the Linux Community (by Jonathan Corbet). A guide to the
kernel development process [Link]

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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (1)

▶ Clone Linus Torvalds’ tree:

▶ git clone https:
//[Link]/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux
▶ Keep your tree up to date
▶ git pull
▶ Look at the master branch and check whether your issue / change hasn’t been
solved / implemented yet. Also check the maintainer’s git tree and mailing list
(see the MAINTAINERS file).You may miss submissions that are not in mainline yet.
▶ If the maintainer has its own git tree, create a remote branch tracking this tree.
This is much better than creating another clone (doesn’t duplicate common
stuff):
▶ git remote add linux-omap https:
//[Link]/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/tmlind/linux-omap
▶ git fetch linux-omap

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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (2)

▶ Either create a new branch starting from the current commit in the master
branch:
▶ git checkout -b feature
▶ Or, if more appropriate, create a new branch starting from the maintainer’s
master branch:
▶ git checkout -b feature linux-omap/master (remote tree / remote branch)
▶ In your new branch, implement your changes.
▶ Test your changes (must at least compile them).
▶ Run git add to add any new files to the index.

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 Configure git send-email

▶ Make sure you already have configured your name and e-mail address (should be
done before the first commit).
▶ git config --global [Link] 'My Name'
▶ git config --global [Link] me@[Link]
▶ Configure your SMTP settings. Example for a Google Mail account:
▶ git config --global [Link] [Link]
▶ git config --global [Link] 587
▶ git config --global [Link] tls
▶ git config --global [Link] jdoe@[Link]
▶ git config --global [Link] xxx

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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (3)

▶ Group your changes by sets of logical changes, corresponding to the set of patches
that you wish to submit.
▶ Commit and sign these groups of changes (signing required by Linux developers).
▶ git commit -s
▶ Make sure your first description line is a useful summary and starts with the name of
the modified subsystem. This first description line will appear in your e-mails
▶ The easiest way is to look at previous commit summaries on the main file you
modify
▶ git log --pretty=oneline <path-to-file>
▶ Examples subject lines ([PATCH] omitted):
Documentation: prctl/seccomp_filter
PCI: release busn when removing bus
ARM: add support for xz kernel decompression

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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (4)
▶ Remove previously generated patches
▶ rm 00*.patch
▶ Have git generate patches corresponding to your branch (assuming it is the
current branch)
▶ If your branch is based on mainline
▶ git format-patch master
▶ If your branch is based on a remote branch
▶ git format-patch <remote>/<branch>
▶ Make sure your patches pass [Link] checks:
▶ scripts/[Link] --strict 00*.patch
▶ Now, send your patches to yourself
▶ git send-email --compose --to me@[Link] 00*.patch
▶ If you have just one patch, or a trivial patch, you can remove the empty line after
In-Reply-To:. This way, you won’t add a summary e-mail introducing your
changes (recommended otherwise).
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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (5)

▶ Check that you received your e-mail properly, and that it looks good.
▶ Now, find the maintainers for your patches
scripts/get_maintainer.pl ~/patches/00*.patch
Russell King <linux@[Link]> (maintainer:ARM PORT)
Nicolas Pitre <[Link]@[Link]>
(commit_signer:1/1=100%)
linux-arm-kernel@[Link] (open list:ARM PORT)
linux-kernel@[Link] (open list)
▶ Now, send your patches to each of these people and lists
▶ git send-email --compose --to linux@[Link] --
to [Link]@[Link] --cc linux-arm-
kernel@[Link] --cc linux-kernel@[Link] 00*.patch
▶ Wait for replies about your changes, take the comments into account, and
resubmit if needed, until your changes are eventually accepted.

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 Contribute to the Linux Kernel (6)

▶ If you use git format-patch to produce your patches, you will need to update
your branch and may need to group your changes in a different way (one patch
per commit).
▶ Here’s what we recommend
▶ Update your master branch
▶ git checkout master; git pull
▶ Back to your branch, implement the changes taking community feedback into
account. Commit these changes.
▶ Still in your branch: reorganize your commits and commit messages
▶ git rebase --interactive origin/master
▶ git rebase allows to rebase (replay) your changes starting from the latest commits in
master. In interactive mode, it also allows you to merge, edit and even reorder
commits, in an interactive way.
▶ Third, generate the new patches with git format-patch.

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 Kernel Resources

Kernel Resources

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Kernel Development News

Linux Weekly News

▶ [Link]
▶ The weekly digest off all Linux and free software
information sources
▶ In depth technical discussions about the kernel
▶ Subscribe to finance the editors ($7 / month)
▶ Articles available for non subscribers after 1 week.

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 Useful Reading (1)

Essential Linux Device Drivers, April 2008

▶ [Link]
▶ By Sreekrishnan Venkateswaran, an embedded IBM
engineer with more than 10 years of experience
▶ Covers a wide range of topics not covered by LDD:
serial drivers, input drivers, I2C, PCMCIA, PCI, USB,
video drivers, audio drivers, block drivers, network
drivers, Bluetooth, IrDA, MTD, drivers in user space,
kernel debugging, etc.
▶ Probably the most wide ranging and complete Linux
device driver book I’ve read – Alan Cox

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 Useful Reading (2)

▶ Linux Kernel Development, 3rd Edition, Jun 2010

▶ Robert Love, Novell Press
▶ [Link]
▶ A very synthetic and pleasant way to learn about kernel
subsystems (beyond the needs of device driver writers)
▶ The Linux Programming Interface, Oct 2010
▶ Michael Kerrisk, No Starch Press
▶ [Link]
▶ A gold mine about the kernel interface and how to use it

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 Useful Reading (3)

Linux Kernel in a Nutshell, Dec. 2006

▶ By Greg Kroah-Hartman, O’Reilly
[Link]
▶ A good reference book and guide on configuring,
compiling and managing the Linux kernel sources.
▶ Freely available on-line!
Great companion to the printed book for easy electronic
searches!
Available as single PDF file on
[Link]
▶ Getting old but still containing useful content.

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 Useful Online Resources

▶ Kernel documentation
▶ [Link]
▶ Linux kernel mailing list FAQ
▶ [Link]
▶ Complete Linux kernel FAQ
▶ Read this before asking a question to the mailing list
▶ Kernel Newbies
▶ [Link]
▶ Glossary, articles, presentations, HOWTOs, recommended reading, useful tools for
people getting familiar with Linux kernel or driver development.
▶ Kernel glossary
▶ [Link]

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 International Conferences (1)

▶ Embedded Linux Conference:

▶ [Link]
▶ Organized by the Linux Foundation every year in North
America and in Europe
▶ Very interesting kernel and user space topics for
embedded systems developers. Many kernel and
embedded project maintainers are present.
▶ Presentation slides and videos freely available on
[Link]
▶ Linux Plumbers: [Link]
▶ About the low-level plumbing of Linux: kernel, audio,
power management, device management, multimedia,
etc. Not really a conventional conference with formal
presentations, but rather a place where contributors on
each topic meet, share their progress and make plans for
work ahead.
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 International Conferences (2)

▶ Kernel Recipes: [Link]

▶ Well attended conference in Europe (Paris), only one
track at a time, with a format that really allows for
discussions.
▶ [Link]: [Link]
▶ In Australia / New Zealand
▶ Features a few presentations by key kernel hackers.
▶ Currently, most conferences are available on-line. They
are much more affordable and often free.

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 Continue to learn after the course

Here are a few suggestions:

▶ Run your labs again on your own
hardware. The Nunchuk lab should be ▶ Participate to improving drivers in
rather straightforward, but the serial drivers/staging/
lab will be quite different if you use a ▶ Investigate and do the triage of issues
different processor. reported by Coverity Scan: https://
▶ Help with tasks keeping the kernel [Link]/projects/linux
code clean and up-to-date: ▶ Learn by reading the kernel code by
[Link] yourself, ask questions and propose
KernelJanitors/Todo improvements.
▶ Propose fixes for issues reported by ▶ Implement and share drivers for your
the Coccinelle tool: own hardware, of course!
make coccicheck

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 Last slides

Last slides

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Last slide

Thank you!
And may the Source be with you

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 Backup slides

Backup slides

© Copyright 2004-2022, Bootlin.

Creative Commons BY-SA 3.0 license.
embedded Linux and kernel engineering
Corrections, suggestions, contributions and translations are welcome!

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 Backup slides

DMA

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 DMA integration
DMA (Direct Memory Access) is used to copy data directly between devices and RAM,
without going through the CPU.

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 Peripheral DMA
Some device controllers embedded their own DMA controller and therefore can do
DMA on their own.

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 DMA controllers
Other device controllers rely on an external DMA controller (on the SoC). Their drivers
need to submit DMA descriptors to this controller.

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 DMA descriptors

DMA descriptors describe the various attributes of a DMA transfer, and are chained.

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 Backup slides

DMA usage

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 Constraints with a DMA

▶ A DMA deals with physical addresses, so:

▶ Programming a DMA requires retrieving a physical address at some point (virtual
addresses are usually used)
▶ The memory accessed by the DMA shall be physically contiguous
▶ The CPU can access memory through a data cache
▶ Using the cache can be more efficient (faster accesses to the cache than the bus)
▶ But the DMA does not access the CPU cache, so one needs to take care of cache
coherency (cache content vs. memory content)
▶ Either clean (write to memory) or invalidate the cache lines corresponding to the
buffer accessed by DMA and processor at the right times

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 DMA memory constraints

▶ Need to use contiguous memory in physical space.

▶ Can use any memory allocated by kmalloc() (up to 128 KB) or
__get_free_pages() (up to 8MB).
▶ Can use block I/O and networking buffers, designed to support DMA.
▶ Can not use vmalloc() memory (would have to setup DMA on each individual
physical page).

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 Memory synchronization issues

Memory caching could interfere with DMA

▶ Before DMA to device
▶ Need to make sure that all writes to the DMA buffer are done (corresponding cache
lines cleaned)
▶ After DMA from device
▶ Before drivers read from a DMA buffer, need to make sure that the corresponding
cache lines are invalidated.
▶ Bidirectional DMA
▶ Need to do both of the above operations

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 Linux DMA API

The kernel DMA utilities can take care of:

▶ Either allocating a buffer in a cache coherent area,
▶ Or making sure caches are handled when required,
▶ Managing the DMA mappings and IOMMU (if any).
▶ See core-api/dma-api for details about DMA and the Linux DMA generic API.
▶ Most subsystems (such as PCI or USB) supply their own DMA API, derived from
the generic one. May be sufficient for most needs.

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 Coherent or streaming DMA mappings

▶ Coherent mappings
▶ The kernel allocates a suitable buffer and sets the mapping for the driver.
▶ Can simultaneously be accessed by the CPU and device.
▶ So, has to be in a cache coherent memory area.
▶ Usually allocated for the whole time the module is loaded.
▶ Can be expensive to setup and use on some platforms.
▶ Streaming mappings
▶ The kernel just sets the mapping for a buffer provided by the driver.
▶ Use an already allocated buffer
▶ Mapping set up for each transfer. Keeps DMA registers free on the hardware.

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 Allocating coherent mappings

The kernel takes care of both buffer allocation and mapping

#include <asm/dma-mapping.h>

void * /* Output: buffer address */

dma_alloc_coherent(
struct device *dev, /* device structure */
size_t size, /* Needed buffer size in bytes */
dma_addr_t *handle, /* Output: DMA bus address */
gfp_t gfp /* Standard GFP flags */
);

void dma_free_coherent(struct device *dev,

size_t size, void *cpu_addr, dma_addr_t handle);
Note: called consistent mappings on PCI
(pci_alloc_consistent() and pci_free_consistent())

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 Setting up streaming mappings

Works on already allocated buffers

#include <linux/dmapool.h>

dma_addr_t dma_map_single(
struct device *, /* device structure */
void *, /* input: buffer to use */
size_t, /* buffer size */
enum dma_data_direction /* Either DMA_BIDIRECTIONAL,
* DMA_TO_DEVICE or
* DMA_FROM_DEVICE */
);

void dma_unmap_single(struct device *dev, dma_addr_t handdle,

size_t size, enum dma_data_direction dir);

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 DMA notes

Streaming mapping notes:

▶ When the mapping is active: only the device should access the buffer (potential
cache issues otherwise).
▶ The CPU can access the buffer only after unmapping!
▶ Another reason: if required, this API can create an intermediate bounce buffer
(used if the given buffer is not usable for DMA).
▶ The Linux API also supports scatter / gather DMA streaming mappings.
Commented network driver example:
▶ See [Link]
for a commmented network driver, which both streaming and coherent mappings.

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 Backup slides

DMA transfers

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 Starting DMA transfers

▶ If the device you’re writing a driver for is doing peripheral DMA, no external API
is involved.
▶ If it relies on an external DMA controller, you’ll need to
▶ Ask the hardware to use DMA, so that it will drive its request line
▶ Use Linux DMAEngine framework, especially its slave API

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 DMAEngine slave API 1/2

In order to start a DMA transfer with DMAEngine, you need to call the following
functions from your driver
1. Request a channel for exclusive use with dma_request_channel(), or one of its
variants
2. Configure it for our use case, by filling a struct dma_slave_config structure
with various parameters (source and destination adresses, accesses width, etc.)
and passing it as an argument to dmaengine_slave_config()
3. Start a new transaction with dmaengine_prep_slave_single() or
dmaengine_prep_slave_sg()
4. Put the transaction in the driver pending queue using dmaengine_submit()
5. And finally ask the driver to process all pending transactions using
dma_async_issue_pending()

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 DMAEngine slave API 2/2

▶ Of course, all this needs to be done in addition to the DMA mapping seen
previously
▶ Some frameworks abstract it away, such as SPI and ASoC
▶ Example usage of the slave API: look at the code for
stm32_i2c_prep_dma_xfer().
Details in kernel documentation: driver-api/dmaengine/client

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 Backup slides

mmap

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 mmap

▶ Possibility to have parts of the virtual address space of a program mapped to the
contents of a file
▶ Particularly useful when the file is a device file
▶ Allows to access device I/O memory and ports without having to go through
(expensive) read, write or ioctl calls
▶ One can access to current mapped files by two means:
▶ /proc/<pid>/maps
▶ pmap <pid>

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 /proc/<pid>/maps

start-end perm offset major:minor inode mapped file name

...
7f4516d04000-7f4516d06000 rw-s 1152a2000 00:05 8406 /dev/dri/card0
7f4516d07000-7f4516d0b000 rw-s 120f9e000 00:05 8406 /dev/dri/card0
...
7f4518728000-7f451874f000 r-xp 00000000 08:01 268909 /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/[Link].1.5.2
7f451874f000-7f451894f000 ---p 00027000 08:01 268909 /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/[Link].1.5.2
7f451894f000-7f4518951000 r--p 00027000 08:01 268909 /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/[Link].1.5.2
7f4518951000-7f4518952000 rw-p 00029000 08:01 268909 /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/[Link].1.5.2
...
7f451da4f000-7f451dc3f000 r-xp 00000000 08:01 1549 /usr/bin/Xorg
7f451de3e000-7f451de41000 r--p 001ef000 08:01 1549 /usr/bin/Xorg
7f451de41000-7f451de4c000 rw-p 001f2000 08:01 1549 /usr/bin/Xorg
...

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 mmap overview

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 How to Implement mmap - User space

▶ Open the device file

▶ Call the mmap system call (see man mmap for details):
void * mmap(
void *start, /* Often 0, preferred starting address */
size_t length, /* Length of the mapped area */
int prot, /* Permissions: read, write, execute */
int flags, /* Options: shared mapping, private copy... */
int fd, /* Open file descriptor */
off_t offset /* Offset in the file */
);
▶ You get a virtual address you can write to or read from.

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 How to Implement mmap - Kernel space

▶ Character driver: implement an mmap file operation and add it to the driver file
operations:
int (*mmap) (
struct file *, /* Open file structure */
struct vm_area_struct * /* Kernel VMA structure */
);
▶ Initialize the mapping.
▶ Can be done in most cases with the remap_pfn_range() function, which takes care
of most of the job.

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 remap_pfn_range()

▶ pfn: page frame number

▶ The most significant bits of the page address (without the bits corresponding to
the page size).
#include <linux/mm.h>

int remap_pfn_range(
struct vm_area_struct *, /* VMA struct */
unsigned long virt_addr, /* Starting user
* virtual address */
unsigned long pfn, /* pfn of the starting
* physical address */
unsigned long size, /* Mapping size */
pgprot_t prot /* Page permissions */
);

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 Simple mmap implementation
static int acme_mmap
(struct file * file, struct vm_area_struct *vma)
{
size = vma->vm_end - vma->vm_start;

if (size > ACME_SIZE)

return -EINVAL;

if (remap_pfn_range(vma,
vma->vm_start,
ACME_PHYS >> PAGE_SHIFT,
size,
vma->vm_page_prot))
return -EAGAIN;

return 0;
}
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 devmem2

▶ [Link] by Jan-Derk Bakker

▶ Very useful tool to directly peek (read) or poke (write) I/O addresses mapped in
physical address space from a shell command line!
▶ Very useful for early interaction experiments with a device, without having to code
and compile a driver.
▶ Uses mmap to /dev/mem.
▶ Examples (b: byte, h: half, w: word)
▶ devmem2 0x000c0004 h (reading)
▶ devmem2 0x000c0008 w 0xffffffff (writing)
▶ devmem is now available in BusyBox, making it even easier to use.

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 mmap summary

▶ The device driver is loaded. It defines an mmap file operation.

▶ A user space process calls the mmap system call.
▶ The mmap file operation is called.
▶ It initializes the mapping using the device physical address.
▶ The process gets a starting address to read from and write to (depending on
permissions).
▶ The MMU automatically takes care of converting the process virtual addresses
into physical ones.
▶ Direct access to the hardware without any expensive read or write system calls

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