CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Street-vended foods are a vital component of the urban foodscape in developing nations,

providing affordable, accessible, and convenient nutrition to millions of people daily

(Muinde and Kuria, 2023). Among these, deep-fried snacks are particularly popular due to

their taste, affordability, and satiety. In many West African and Asian countries, fried

snacks made from tubers and legumes such as sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam

(Dioscorea spp.), and soybean cake (often called awara or tofu) are ubiquitous, often

consumed as quick breakfast items or snacks (Oranusi et al., 2022).

These foods are rich in carbohydrates and, in the case of soybean cake, plant-based protein.

However, their safety for public consumption is a persistent concern. Critical points of

contamination include the quality of raw ingredients, water used in processing, handlers’

personal hygiene, utensils, the frying oil (which may be used repeatedly), and post-frying

handling during display and sale (Onyeaka et al., 2022).

In the bustling urban and semi-urban landscapes like the Gwagwaji area of Zaria, Kaduna

State, a diverse array of ready-to-eat foods is hawked daily. Among these, fried

carbohydrate- and protein-rich snacks such as sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), yam

(Dioscorea spp.), and soybean cake are highly popular due to their taste, satiety value, and

affordability (Eze et al., 2022).

Bacteriological quality assessment serves as a critical indicator of the sanitary status of food

and the hygiene practices employed during its production. While the frying process at high

temperatures (>160°C) can effectively eliminate vegetative pathogenic cells, post-

processing contamination remains a significant threat. Furthermore, the inherent

composition of the raw materials plays a crucial role; soybean cake, for instance, with its

1
high protein and moisture content, presents a more favourable matrix for bacterial

proliferation compared to the starchy yam and sweet potato, if not handled properly (Ibeh et

al., 2020).

Despite the widespread consumption of these fried snacks in Zaria, there is a dearth of

specific, comparative scientific data on their microbiological safety, particularly within the

Gwagwaji area. Existing studies in Nigeria have often focused on other street foods like

meat products, "suya", and "moi-moi", with limited attention given to a direct comparative

analysis of these popular plant-based snacks (Oranusi et al., 2020). Therefore, a

comparative evaluation is needed to generate evidence on the safety levels of these foods,

identify the most vulnerable snack and pinpoint the likely sources and types of bacterial

contamination.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that annually, unsafe food causes 600

million cases of foodborne diseases and 420,000 deaths globally, with a disproportionate

burden in developing regions (WHO, 2022). While the frying process at high temperatures

(typically 160–180°C) is expected to destroy vegetative pathogenic microorganisms, studies

indicate that contamination often occurs post-frying as the preparation and vending of these

foods typically occur in open-air environments with variable hygiene standards, exposing

them to multiple sources of microbial contamination (Afulani et al., 2023). Furthermore,

bacterial spores and some heat-resistant strains can survive inadequate frying, while toxins

produced prior to frying may remain active (Fellows and Hilmi, 2021). The bacteriological

quality of these foods, therefore, poses a significant risk of foodborne illnesses, including

diarrhea, typhoid fever, cholera, and gastroenteritis, which are major public health burdens

(World Health Organization (WHO), 2022); hence the need for the assessment to determine

2
the level of contamination, compare the safety profile of these three popular foods, and

ascertain if they meet the acceptable microbiological standards for ready-to-eat foods

1.3 Justification of the Study

This study will address the public health implications of consuming ready-to-eat street

foods, which are essential to the urban food supply chain yet often evade regulatory safety

standards. While fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake are popular, affordable staples,

their varying nutritional compositions particularly the high protein content of soybean cake

create distinct ecological niches that support differential bacterial proliferation under

common unhygienic street vending conditions. The findings of this study will provide

evidence-based information to guide food safety interventions, inform vendor hygiene

practices, and help regulatory bodies prioritize surveillance efforts and mitigating the risk of

foodborne illnesses in vulnerable consumer populations. Also the result of the study was

used as a reference material for further research and contribution to knowledge.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to conduct a comparative assessment of the bacteriological quality

of street-vended fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake.

The objectives of the study are

i. To isolate and characterize the bacterial contaminants in the sweet potato, yam and

beans cake samples.

ii. To determine the Total Aerobic Plate Count (APC), as an indicator of general

microbial quality in the selected food samples.

iii. To compare the obtained bacteriological loads with established national and

international microbiological guidelines for ready-to-eat foods.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

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This study was conducted within the Gwagwaji area of Zaria LGA, Kaduna State. It will

focus exclusively on bacteriological analysis and limited to fried sweet potato, yam, and

soybean cake purchased from street vendors.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Street-Vended Foods

Street-vended foods constitute a vital component of the urban foodscape across the Global

South, providing affordable, convenient, and culturally significant nutrition to millions of

low and middle-income consumers daily. In Sub-Saharan Africa and specifically Nigeria,

the sector is a critical economic buffer, offering employment and entrepreneurship

opportunities, particularly for women and youth, with minimal capital investment (Mensah

et al., 2023). These ready-to-eat foods bridge the nutritional gap for a vast populace, with

items like fried sweet potato, yam and soybean cake (awara) serving as major sources of

carbohydrates, protein, and micronutrients. Their popularity is anchored in deep-rooted

culinary traditions, sensory appeal, and adaptability to the fast-paced urban lifestyle.

However, the sector’s informal nature, characterized by minimal regulatory oversight,

transient vending locations, and often rudimentary operational infrastructures, renders it a

significant vector for foodborne illnesses. The public health implications of SVFs are thus

paradoxical: they are simultaneously a nutritional lifeline and a potential reservoir of

pathogenic hazards. This dichotomy underscores the necessity for continuous and targeted

food safety research to inform policies that protect consumers without stifling a vital

informal economy.

The bacteriological quality of these foods serves as the most immediate and quantifiable

indicator of their safety. Contamination can occur at multiple points along the farm-to-

vendor continuum: from the use of polluted water for washing raw materials and processing,

4
inadequate hand hygiene of vendors, exposure to vehicular emissions and dust, improper

storage temperatures that allow microbial proliferation, to the use of unwashed or

contaminated utensils and serving materials (Okojie and Isah, 2022). The frying process,

while capable of reducing microbial load on the surface, is often insufficient to eliminate all

pathogens, especially if the internal temperature does not reach lethal thresholds or if post-

frying recontamination occurs.

Consequently, the comparative assessment of specific, high-volume items like fried sweet

potato, yam, and soybean cake is not merely an academic exercise but a public health

imperative. Each product presents unique raw material characteristics, preparation

methodologies, and handling challenges that can differentially influence microbial

colonization and survival. A focused review of existing literature on these commodities,

therefore, provides a critical foundation for understanding risk profiles, identifying

contamination hotspots, and proposing evidence-based interventions tailored to Nigeria’s

socio-economic context.

2.2 Bacteriological Quality Indicators and Pathogens in Ready-to-Eat Foods

The evaluation of food safety from a microbiological perspective hinges on the analysis of

specific indicator organisms and direct pathogen detection. Indicator organisms, such as

Total Aerobic Plate Count (APC), Total Coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus

aureus, are routinely used as proxies for overall hygiene, sanitation, and the potential

presence of more dangerous pathogens. The APC provides a broad measure of the total

viable mesophilic bacteria in a sample, reflecting the general microbial load and the efficacy

of preservation methods; high counts often suggest poor time-temperature control or

unsanitary processing (Adeleke et al., 2023). Coliforms, particularly faecal coliforms and E.

coli, are classic indicators of faecal contamination, pointing to the possible presence of

enteric pathogens like Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., and enteropathogenic E. coli.

5
Beyond indicators, the direct isolation of specific pathogens is crucial for definitive risk

characterization. Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes are of paramount concern due

to their low infectious doses and severe clinical outcomes, including typhoid fever,

gastroenteritis, meningitis, and septicaemia. Similarly, Bacillus cereus, often associated

with starchy foods, can produce emetic and diarrhoeal toxins if foods are held at ambient

temperatures after cooking (Oni et al., 2024). The presence of Staphylococcus aureus is

particularly relevant for hand-prepared foods, as it indicates direct human contact; its ability

to produce heat-stable enterotoxins in food prior to consumption makes it a major cause of

food poisoning, even if the bacteria themselves are killed during frying.

Recent studies have illuminated the alarmingly high prevalence of these organisms in

Nigerian SVFs. For instance, a 2023 meta-analysis of RTE foods in Southwest Nigeria

revealed that over 40% of samples exceeded acceptable limits for faecal coliforms,

while Salmonella was isolated in approximately 15% of all vended foods tested (Akinbode

et al., 2023). The standards for these parameters, as set by national bodies like the National

Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and international bodies

like the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF),

provide the benchmark for assessment. These standards typically stipulate acceptable,

marginally acceptable, and unacceptable levels of microbial counts, guiding researchers in

interpreting the public health significance of their findings.

The choice of which indicators and pathogens to prioritize in a comparative study must be

informed by the food matrix. For instance, soybean cake, involving a complex process of

soaking, dehulling, grinding, and fermentation, may have a different microbial ecology and

risk profile compared to simply peeled and sliced yam or sweet potato. Therefore, a robust

comparative assessment must employ a standardized bacteriological assay panel that

6
captures both universal hygiene indicators and pathogens of specific relevance to the

ingredients and preparation methods of each fried product.

2.3 A Comparative Analysis of Microbial Contamination in Fried Tuber and Legume-

Based Street Foods

Existing literature, while often focused on individual food items, provides a scaffold for

comparing the bacteriological safety of fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake. Fried

yam (dundu), a ubiquitous snack, has been frequently studied. Research by Eze et al. (2022)

in Enugu State found that 65% of sampled fried yam harboured aerobic plate counts

exceeding 10^6 CFU/g, with significant isolations of Staphylococcus aureus linked to

manual handling during slicing and vending. The study noted that the thick, dense texture of

yam might protect internal microbiota from the full thermal lethality of brief frying,

especially when pieces are large.

Fried sweet potato, though less commonly studied than yam, presents a similar profile with

added risk factors. Its higher natural sugar content can potentially support microbial growth

if not fried immediately after cutting. A study in Ibadan by Okafor and Nnadi (2023)

reported that while surface contamination was reduced by frying, the internal flesh of

inadequately fried sweet potato pieces still contained viable coliforms. Furthermore,

vendors often par-fry large batches, which are then refried upon purchase; this practice

creates dangerous temperature abuse windows ideal for microbial proliferation, particularly

for spore-formers like Bacillus species.

Soybean cake represents a more complex case. Its preparation involves extensive manual

processing: soaking, wet milling, and often spontaneous fermentation. The legume slurry is

an excellent growth medium for microbes. Studies consistently show that the batter stage is

a critical control point. Contaminated water used for grinding or washing equipment is a

7
major hazard. Abdullahi et al. (2024) in Kano documented that awara batter samples prior

to frying had alarmingly high counts of E. coli and Salmonella spp., which, although

reduced, were not always eliminated in the final fried product. The shaping of the cake with

bare hands introduces another contamination route. However, the smaller size and thinner

profile of awara may allow for more uniform and lethal heat penetration during frying

compared to thick yam chips, potentially making post-frying handling the dominant risk

phase (Mbah et al., 2023).

The comparative risk is therefore dynamic. Yam and sweet potato may be more susceptible

to internal survival of contaminants due to physical structure, while soybean cake faces

greater pre-frying contamination risks during batter preparation. The common thread across

all three is the critical importance of post-processing hygiene: the use of unsanitary

newspapers or polyethylene for serving, exposure to flies and dust, and handling with

unclean hands and utensils by both vendor and consumer. A synthesis of recent works

suggests that no single product is inherently safe; rather, the safety is a function of which set

of contamination and control failures predominate in its specific preparation and vending

chain (Mbah et al., 2023).

2.4 Control Points and Intervention Strategies in the Street Food Vending

Identifying the key stages where contamination occurs or can be prevented is essential for

developing practical interventions. The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

framework, though challenging to implement fully in informal settings, provides a logical

structure for this analysis. For all three commodities, the initial quality of raw materials is a

primary control point (CCP1). The use of visibly spoiled tubers or mouldy soybeans

introduces high initial loads. Washing with potable water is a critical intervention, yet

studies indicate that vendors in many locations rely on well or river water of dubious quality

(Mbah et al., 2023).

8
The processing stage presents distinct CCPs. For yam and sweet potato, the peeling and

slicing surfaces (often unclean wooden boards or bare ground) and knives are major

fomites. For soybean cake, the grinding stone or mill, fermentation containers, and water

used in batter preparation are paramount. The frying process itself (CCP2) is a kill step, but

its effectiveness depends on oil temperature (which degrades with prolonged use), frying

duration, and the size of the food pieces. Research by Ogbuagu et al. (2023) demonstrated

that oil temperature in street vending pots often falls below the recommended 170°C–

180°C, especially during peak business hours, leading to inadequate thermal processing.

Post-frying handling (CCP3) is arguably the most consistently problematic stage. Holding

fried food at ambient temperatures for extended periods allows for rapid bacterial regrowth,

especially of mesophiles. The use of uncovered containers, bare-hand contact during

serving, and unsanitary packaging materials are ubiquitous practices that lead to direct

recontamination. Consumer behaviour also plays a role, as foods may be carried and stored

for hours before consumption. Interventions must therefore be multi-pronged, focusing on

improving infrastructure (access to clean water, proper waste disposal), building capacity

through targeted and practical hygiene training for vendor associations, and promoting

affordable technological solutions like improved, thermometer-equipped fryers and food

display shields (Isah et al., 2024).

Ultimately, a purely regulatory, top-down approach has proven limited. Effective strategies

must be co-created with vendors, recognizing their economic constraints and integrating

indigenous knowledge. Recent participatory action research in Accra and Lagos highlights

that vendor-led food safety clubs and peer monitoring can lead to sustained improvements

in hygiene practices when coupled with basic support, such as access to communal potable

water taps and hygienic market infrastructure (Mensah et al., 2023; Isah et al., 2024). A

comparative bacteriological assessment of fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake can

9
directly feed into such targeted training programs by highlighting the unique risks of each

product, thereby moving beyond generic food safety messages to actionable, commodity-

specific guidance.

2.5 Pathogenic Bacteria Associated with Street-Vended Foods and Their Sources of

Contamination

The consumption of street-vended foods is a significant risk factor for foodborne infections,

primarily due to the proliferation and survival of various pathogenic bacteria throughout the

food preparation and vending chain. These pathogens, when present in sufficient numbers or

as toxin producers, can cause illnesses ranging from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening

systemic infections. Understanding the specific bacteria involved and their precise entry

points into the food matrix is critical for hazard identification. The pathogenic bacteria most

commonly implicated in the contamination of street-vended foods, including fried snacks,

belong to several key genera, each with distinct reservoirs and modes of transmission that

exploit the typical lapses in hygiene and infrastructure within the informal vending sector.

Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. are classic enteric pathogens of paramount concern. Non-

typhoidal Salmonella (e.g., S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis) is a leading cause of foodborne

diarrhoeal disease globally. Its primary reservoirs are the intestinal tracts of animals,

particularly poultry, livestock, and reptiles. Contamination of street foods occurs through

multiple routes: the use of contaminated water for washing raw tubers or preparing soybean

batter; cross-contamination from raw animal products handled in the same vending space;

and crucially, through direct faecal-oral transmission from vendors or consumers with poor

hand hygiene. Shigella, which is highly host-adapted to humans, is introduced almost

exclusively through faecal contamination from infected food handlers. A vendor who is an

asymptomatic carrier or who fails to wash hands after defecation can directly inoculate

10
foods during handling, especially during the manual shaping of soybean cake or the serving

of all products with bare hands (Alimi et al., 2023).

Staphylococcus aureus represents a different paradigm of risk, being a common commensal

of human skin and nasal passages. It is therefore not an indicator of faecal pollution but of

direct human contact. During processes like peeling yam, moulding awara, or handling

fried products before serving, S. aureus can be readily transferred from the vendor’s hands,

particularly if cuts or abrasions are present. The cardinal danger of this pathogen lies not

merely in its presence but in its ability to produce heat-stable enterotoxins. If contaminated

food is held at ambient temperatures for extended periods a universal practice in street

vending the bacteria can multiply and produce these toxins. Subsequent frying may kill the

bacteria but will not denature the pre-formed toxins, leading to rapid-onset, violent vomiting

shortly after consumption (Onyekwere et al., 2024).

Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens are spore-forming bacteria intrinsically linked

to the preparation and holding practices of starchy and proteinaceous foods. B.

cereus spores are ubiquitous in soil and dust and readily contaminate raw agricultural

products like tubers, legumes, and spices. These spores can survive the thermal shock of

frying. The critical control failure occurs during the post-frying "hot-holding" stage. When

large batches of fried yam or sweet potato are kept warm but not piping hot, or allowed to

cool slowly, the spores germinate, and the vegetative cells multiply rapidly to infective

levels, producing either emetic or diarrhoeal toxins (Fadairo et al., 2023). Similarly, C.

perfringens, often associated with meat but also present in soil, can proliferate in slowly

cooling legume-based foods like soybean cake, leading to profuse diarrhoea.

Finally, Escherichia coli, particularly enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) and enterotoxigenic

(ETEC) pathotypes, serves as both an indicator of faecal contamination and a direct

pathogen. Its presence is a clear signal of the breach of basic sanitation barriers. The sources

11
are invariably faecal: contaminated irrigation water on farms, polluted water used for

washing or processing, organic fertilizers (like untreated manure) used on crops, and direct

contamination from unwashed hands. The use of wastewater for irrigation of soybean or

tuber crops is a documented, high-risk practice in some peri-urban agricultural systems,

which can lead to primary contamination of raw materials even before they reach the vendor

(Chukwu et al., 2023). These pathogens underscore that contamination is seldom a single

event but a cascade of failures, from farm-level agricultural practices, through the market

supply chain, to the final point of sale, where inadequate infrastructure and hygiene

converge to create a significant public health hazard.

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 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study Area

The study was carried out within Gwargwaje Area, Zaria and Zaria is located between

Latitudes 11° 4" N and Longitudes 7° 42" E in the northern guinea savannah zone of

Nigeria, characterized by a distinct wet and dry season. It is one of the Local Government

Area of Kaduna State. The population comprised mostly of civil servants, traders, farmers

and students. From the 2006 census, Zaria was estimated to have 408, 198 people

(Wikipedia, 2022).

Fig. 3.1: Map of Zaria Metropolis

3.2 Sample Collection

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A total of 9 samples were randomly collected one (1) each from nine (9) different vendors,

comprising Fried Sweet Potato, Yam and Soya Beans Cake (Awara), following the sampling

approach adopted from Amoo et al. (2024). A simple random sampling technique was used

to obtain samples from food vendors without prior notification or explicit consent to ensure

unbiased data collection. Sampling was conducted three times over one month. The samples

was aseptically collected, properly labeled, and immediately transported to the

microbiology laboratory of Nuhu Bamalli Polytechnic, Zaria for analysis. Standard

microbiological assays, including serial dilution, inoculation, incubation, microscopy, and

biochemical tests was performed to identify microbial contaminants (Ekeleme and

Mohammed, 2024).

3.3 Bacterial Count

The pour-plate method was employed for this analysis, following the procedure outlined by

the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO, 2002) and adapted by Madgan et al.

(2017).

25 g of each sample was aseptically collected and placed in a sterile blender, 225 ml of

buffered peptone water was added and the mixture was homogenized for 2 minutes at a

standard speed. 1 mL aliquot of the 10⁻¹ dilution was transferred to 9 mL of sterilized

peptone water to create subsequent dilutions up to 10-6. From each serial dilution, 1 mL

was pipetted into a sterile Petri dish, followed by the addition of molten nutrient agar. The

contents was mixed thoroughly by gently swirling the plate on the bench. The molten agar

was allowed to solidify before incubation. Plates containing Nutrient Agar was incubated at

37 °C for 24 hours. Similarly, plates with MacConkey Agar and Mannitol Salt Agar was

prepared using the same method and incubated at 37 °C for 24 - 48 hours. After the

incubation period, colonies were counted using a colony counter, and the results was

expressed as colony-forming units per gram (cfu/g) of the sample. Colony counts between

14
30 and 300 on a standard 10 cm Petri dish was considered valid. The CFU/ml was

calculated using the following formula:

CFU/mL = No of colonies x Dilution factor

Volume plated

3.4 Identification of Bacterial Isolates

This was based on both morphological and biochemical characteristics of the isolates

3.4.1 Morphological Characterization (Gram Staining)

A sterile wire loop was used to pick a bacterial colony and a smear of the bacterial isolate

was made on a slide with a drop of distilled water. This was air dried and then heat fixed.

The slide was flooded with crystal violet (primary stain) for 60 seconds; the stain was

drained off, washed and flooded with Lugol’s iodine (mordant) for 60 seconds. It was then

be flooded with 95 % alcohol for 15 seconds after which it was rinsed with distilled water

and finally counterstained with safranin for 30 seconds. The slide will then be gently

washed with distilled water and air dried. The slide was observed under oil immersion lens

(×100). Gram positive cells stains purple while Gram negative stains pink; the shape and

cell arrangement will also be observed and recorded (Cheesbrough, 2004).

3.5 Biochemical Tests

The biochemical test was carried out following the procedure described by Cheesbrough,

(2004)

3.5.1 Catalase Test

The test was carried out by adding 2ml of 3% H 2O2 solution into a test tube. A glass rod

were then used to remove colonies of the test organisms and immersed into the hydrogen

peroxide solution. A positive catalase test was indicated by the presence of effervescence

15
due to the liberation of oxygen by the bacteria. This test differentiated catalase producing

Staphylocooci from non-catalase producing Streptococci (Cheesbrough, 2004).

3.5.2 Coagulase Test

This is done to identify Staphylococcus aureus which produces the enzyme coagulase. Two

drops of physiological saline about 2cm apart were dropped separately by a mark on the

slide. A colony of the bacterial isolate was emulsified in each drop to make two thick

suspensions then a loopful of little citrated human plasma was added to one of the

suspension slightly rocked for about 10 seconds. Clumping of the organism after rocking

indicated a positive result (Cheesbrough, 2004). This test differentiates Staphylococcus

aureus from other members of the genus Staphylococcus.

3.5.3 Citrate Utilization Test

The isolates were inoculated on Simmon citrate agar slant in bijou bottles and incubated for

24 hours at 370C. The development of a deep blue colour indicated a positive reaction and

no change in colour indicated a negative test (Cheesbrough, 2004). This test is based on the

ability of an organism to use citrate as its only source of carbon and is used to differentiate

enterobacteria

3.5.4 Motility Test

The medium (motility medium) was inoculated with the organism by making a fine stab

with a straight wire to a depth of 1-2cm short of the bottom of the tube; the inoculated

medium was then incubated at 370C for 24 hours. For motile organism, the line of

inoculation will not sharply defined and the rest of the medium remained cloudy; for a non-

motile bacterium growth was restricted to the line of inoculation which became sharply

defined and the rest of the medium remained clear (Cheesbrough, 2004).

3.5.5 Indole Test

16
Indole test was used to determine the organism which splits amino acid tryptophan to form

the compound indole.

The isolates were grown in 5ml peptone water in bijou bottles for 24 hours. After this, three

drops of Kovac’s reagent were added, about 3 to 4 drops of the reagent are usually

sufficient. It was then shaken gently. A positive reaction was indicated by the development

of red colour in the reagent layer above the broth within a few minutes. In a negative

reaction, the indole reagent retains its yellow colour (Cheesbrough, 2004). This test is used

to differentiate Gram negative rods, particularly Escherichia coli.

3.5.6 Methyl Red and Voges Proskauer Test

These tests are used to differentiate bacteria which ferment glucose with the production of

acetyl-methyl carbinol (acetoin) which can be detected by an oxidation reaction. These tests

are used to distinguish between various coliform organisms. All coliform organisms ferment

glucose with the production of acid and if the medium is tested 24 hours hours after

incubation with one of these organisms, they will all have a pH of about 4.6, that is, they are

MR-positive.

However, further incubation with for instance E. coli results in the production of more acid

and after 48 hours, the MR test remains positive. Other organisms which can decarboxylate

and condense the pyruvic acid formed to acetyl-methyl carbinol, like Klebsiella aeriuginosa

allow the pH to rise and when methyl red indicator is added, the colour is yellow or MR-

negative.

[Link] MR Test

Ten milliliters (10ml) of glucose phosphate broth was inoculated with a pure culture of the

organism to be tested and then incubated at 370C for at least 48 hours or at 300C for at least

72 hours. Afterward a few drops of 0.04% methyl red solution were added. A magenta-red

colour indicated a positive result.

17
[Link] VP Test

Four milliliters (4ml) of alpha (α)-naphthol solution and 1.5ml of 40% potassium hydroxide

(KOH) solution was added to the 10ml culture in glucose phosphate broth and shaken. The

cap on the bottle was left loosen and examined after15 minutes and 1 hour. A cherry-red

colour indicated a positive reaction.

3.6 Data Analysis

The frequency distribution and the prevalence of bacterial isolates was presented in tables

also the biochemical characterization confirmed bacterial identification, with results was

presented in tables and graphical representations.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result

The result obtained from the comparative bacteriological quality assessment of fried sweet potato,
yam and soya beans cake sold at Gwargwaje area of Zaria Local Government is shown in the tables
below:

Table 4.1: Bacterial Count of the Samples

SN No. of Colonies Dilution Factor Vol. of Inc CFU/mL

S1 43 104 0.1ml 4.3 x 106
S2 53 104 0.1ml 5.3 x 106
S3 48 104 0.1ml 4.8 x 106
S4 51 104 0.1ml 5.1 x 106
S5 46 104 0.1ml 4.6 x 106
S6 55 104 0.1ml 5.5 X 106
S7 63 104 0.1ml 6.3 X 106
S8 42 104 0.1ml 4.2 X 106
S9 47 104 0.1ml 4.7 X 106

KEY: CFU/mL: Colony forming unit, S1: Sweet Potato 1, S2: Sweet Potato 2, S3: Sweet Potato 3,
S4: Yam 4, S5: Yam 5, S6: Yam 6:, S7: Soya Beans Cake (Awara), S8: Soya Beans Cake (Awara),
S9: Soya Beans Cake (Awara)

This table shows the total bacterial load in the nine samples. The counts ranged from 4.2 x 10⁶
CFU/mL (S8) to 6.3 x 10⁶ CFU/mL (S7), indicating a relatively high and consistent level of
bacterial contamination across all samples.

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Table 4.2 Microscopy Result of Bacterial Isolates on MacConkey Agar

Sample Gram Reaction Cell morphology Cell arrangement

S1 V+e Long rod In clustered
S2 V+e Short rod In clustered
S3 V+e Cocci In clustered
S4 V+e Short rod In clustered
S5 V+e Short rod In chain
S6 V+e Short rod In chain
S7 V+e Cocci In clustered
S8 V+e Short rod In clustered
S9 V+e Short rod In chain

Key: V+e): Positive, S1: Sweet Potato 1, S2: Sweet Potato 2, S3: Sweet Potato 3, S4: Yam 4, S5:
Yam 5, S6: Yam 6:, S7: Soya Beans Cake (Awara), S8: Soya Beans Cake (Awara), S9: Soya Beans
Cake (Awara)

All isolates (S1–S9) were Gram-variable positive (V+e). The cell shapes varied between long rods,
short rods, and cocci, with arrangements mostly in clusters, except for S5 and S6 which were in
chains.

20
Table 4.3: Microscopy Result of Bacterial Isolates on Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA)

Sample Gram Reaction Cell morphology Cell arrangement

S1 V-e Cocci In clustered
S2 V-e Cocci In clustered
S3 V-e Very short rod In clustered
S4 V-e Short rod In clustered
S5 V-e Cocci In clustered
S6 V-e Cocci In clustered
S7 V-e Short rod In clustered
S8 V-e Short rod In clustered
S9 V-e Cocci In clustered

Key: V-e: Negative, S1: Sweet Potato 1, S2: Sweet Potato 2, S3: Sweet Potato 3, S4: Yam 4, S5:
Yam 5, S6: Yam 6:, S7: Soya Beans Cake (Awara), S8: Soya Beans Cake (Awara), S9: Soya Beans
Cake (Awara)

All isolates (S1–S9) were Gram-variable negative (V-e). The morphology included cocci, short
rods, and very short rods, all arranged in clusters, with no chain formations observed.

21
Table 4.4: Biochemical Test of the Isolated Bacteria Isolates on MacConkey Agar
SN Ind MR VP Cit Mot Ure Oxi Cog Cat Organism
S1 - + - - + - - - - Bacciluss spp
S2 - + - - + - - - - Bacciluss spp
S3 - + - - - - - + - Chorynbacterium sp
S4 + - + - + - - - - Clostridium spp
S5 + - + - + - - - - Clostridium spp
S6 - + - - + - - - - Bacciluss spp
S7 - - + - + - - - - Staphylococcus spp
S8 - + - - + - - - - Bacciluss spp
S9 - + - - + - - - - Bacciluss spp

KEY
Ind – Indole test, MR- Methyl red, VP- Vougestposkauer test, Cit- Citrate test, Mot-, Motility test,
Ure- Urease test, Oxi- Oxidase test, Cog- Coagulase, Cat- Catalase

The biochemical profiles identified the following organisms: Bacillus spp (most
frequent), Clostridium spp, Corynebacterium sp, and Staphylococcus spp. Most isolates
were motile, MR-positive, and catalase-negative, with varying results for other tests.

Table 4.5: Biochemical Test of the Isolated Bacteria Isolates on Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA)
22
SN Ind M VP Cit Mot Ure Oxi Cog Cat Organism
R
S1 - - + + - - - - - Enterobacter sp
S2 - + - - + - - - - Serratia sp
S3 - + - + - + - + - Klebsiella sp
S4 - + - - - + + + - Citrobacter sp
S5 - + - - - + + + - Citrobacter sp
S6 - + - + - + - + - Klebsiella sp
S7 - + - - - + + + - Citrobacter sp
S8 - + - - + + - - - Yersenia sp
S9 - - + + - - - - - Enterobacter sp

KEY
Ind – Indole test, MR- Methyl red, VP- Vougestposkauer test, Cit- Citrate test, Mot-, Motility test,
Ure- Urease test, Oxi- Oxidase test, Cog- Coagulase, Cat- Catalase

The isolates were identified as Enterobacter sp, Serratia sp, Klebsiella sp, Citrobacter sp,
and Yersinia sp. Most were MR-positive, urease-positive, and non-motile, with a mix of citrate and
coagulase reactions.

23
Table 4.6 Table of Frequency of Occurrence of the Bacterial Isolates
S Organism Frequency Percentage (100%)
N
1 Enterobacter sp 2 11
2 Bacciluss spp 5 27
3 Staphylococcus spp 1 6
4 Clostridium spp 2 11
5 Klebsiella sp 2 11
6 Yersenia sp 1 6
7 Serrotia sp 1 6
8 citrobacter sp 2 11
18 100

A total of 18 bacterial isolates were identified. The most prevalent organism was Bacillus spp (27%),
followed by Enterobacter sp, Clostridium sp, Klebsiella sp, and Citrobacter sp (each at 11%). The
least frequent were Staphylococcus spp, Yersinia sp, and Serratia sp (each at 6%).

24
4.2 Discussion

The findings of this study provide critical insights into the bacteriological quality of street-vended

fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake (awara) sold in the Gwagwaje area of Zaria Local

Government, Kaduna State.

The Total Aerobic Plate Counts obtained in this study ranged from 4.2 × 10⁶ CFU/mL to 6.3 × 10⁶

CFU/mL across all nine samples (Table 4.1). These values represent a high level of bacterial

contamination that exceeds the acceptable microbiological limits for ready-to-eat foods as stipulated

by the International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) and the

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), which generally

recommend APC values below 10⁵ CFU/g for safe ready-to-eat foods (ICMSF, 2002; NAFDAC,

2015).

The consistently high APC across all three food types sweet potato (4.3 × 10⁶ to 5.3 × 10⁶

CFU/mL), yam (4.6 × 10⁶ to 5.5 × 10⁶ CFU/mL), and soybean cake (4.2 × 10⁶ to 6.3 × 10⁶

CFU/mL) suggests that all these fried snacks pose a potential health risk to consumers. These

findings are consistent with the work of Eze et al. (2022) in Enugu State, who reported that 65% of

sampled fried yam harboured aerobic plate counts exceeding 10⁶ CFU/g. Similarly, Okafor and

Nnadi (2023) documented high APC values in fried sweet potato samples from Ibadan, with counts

ranging from 2.5 × 10⁶ to 8.1 × 10⁶ CFU/g.

The high bacterial load observed in soybean cake samples (S7: 6.3 × 10⁶ CFU/mL, S8: 4.2 × 10⁶

CFU/mL, S9: 4.7 × 10⁶ CFU/mL) is particularly concerning. This finding aligns with the

observations of Abdullahi et al. (2024) in Kano, who documented alarmingly high bacterial counts

in awara samples, attributing this to the extensive manual processing steps involved in its

production, including soaking, wet milling, and shaping with bare hands. The high protein and

25
moisture content of soybean cake creates a more favourable matrix for bacterial proliferation

compared to the starchy sweet potato and yam, as previously noted by Ibeh et al. (2020).

The microscopy and biochemical characterization of isolates from MacConkey agar (Table 4.4) and

Mannitol Salt Agar (Table 4.5) revealed a diverse array of bacterial contaminants, including Bacillus

spp (27%), Enterobacter sp (11%), Clostridium spp (11%), Klebsiella sp (11%), Citrobacter

sp (11%), Staphylococcus spp (6%), Yersinia sp (6%), and Serratia sp (6%) as presented in Table

4.6.

The predominance of Bacillus spp in all three food types is significant and consistent with previous

studies on street-vended fried foods. Oni et al. (2024) reported that Bacillus cereus, a species within

this genus, is commonly associated with starchy foods like fried yam and sweet potato, as its spores

can survive the thermal shock of frying. The recovery of Bacillus spp from post-frying samples

indicates either spore survival during inadequate frying or recontamination after frying. Fadairo et

al. (2023) documented that B. cereus spores are ubiquitous in soil and dust and readily contaminate

raw agricultural products. The presence of this organism is particularly concerning because it can

produce heat-stable emetic and diarrhoeal toxins that remain active even after the vegetative cells are

killed by subsequent heating (Fellows and Hilmi, 2021).

The isolation of Clostridium spp from yam samples (S4 and S5) is notable. Clostridium perfringens,

a spore-forming anaerobe, is often associated with slowly cooling proteinaceous and starchy foods

(Mensah et al., 2023). The practice of holding fried foods at ambient temperatures for extended

periods after frying creates ideal conditions for the germination of Clostridium spores and

subsequent toxin production (Chukwu et al., 2023). This finding corroborates the work of Mbah et

al. (2023), who reported the presence of Clostridium species in street-vended tubers in Southeastern

Nigeria.

26
Although Staphylococcus spp was isolated from only one soybean cake sample (S7), its presence is

epidemiologically significant. Staphylococcus aureus is a common commensal of human skin and

nasal passages, and its isolation from food indicates direct human contact during handling

(Onyekwere et al., 2024). The manual shaping of soybean cake (awara) with bare hands, a common

practice among vendors, is a likely source of this contamination. Eze et al. (2022) similarly

linked Staphylococcus aureus contamination in fried yam to manual handling during slicing and

vending. The ability of S. aureus to produce heat-stable enterotoxins makes its presence particularly

dangerous, as these toxins are not destroyed by the frying process (Onyekwere et al., 2024).

The isolation of these Gram-negative enteric bacteria from all food types indicates potential faecal

contamination, likely from contaminated water used in washing raw materials or processing, poor

vendor hygiene, or cross-contamination (Alimi et al., 2023). These organisms are members of the

family Enterobacteriaceae and serve as indicators of poor sanitation (Adeleke et al., 2023). The

presence of Klebsiella species in sweet potato (S3) and yam (S6) samples is particularly noteworthy,

as Ibeh et al. (2020) previously reported the detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae in raw vegetables,

suggesting a potential farm-to-table contamination pathway.

The isolation of Enterobacter species from soybean cake samples (S7 and S9) is consistent with the

findings of Abdullahi et al. (2024), who documented high counts of coliforms in awara batter

samples, which, although reduced, were not always eliminated in the final fried product. The

presence of these organisms underscores the critical importance of the batter stage as a control point

in soybean cake production, as contaminated water used for grinding or washing equipment

introduces major hazards (Mbah et al., 2023).

The isolation of Yersinia and Serratia species, though less frequent, is concerning. Yersinia species,

particularly Y. enterocolitica, are psychrotrophic pathogens that can grow at refrigeration

temperatures and have been associated with contaminated water and food products (Chukwu et al.,

27
2023). Serratia species, while generally considered opportunistic pathogens, can cause infections in

immunocompromised individuals and may also indicate environmental contamination (Oranusi et

al., 2022).

The findings of this study revealed that the consumption of street-vended fried snacks with bacterial

loads exceeding acceptable microbiological limits exposes consumers to the risk of foodborne

illnesses, including diarrhoea, gastroenteritis, and food poisoning. The World Health Organization

(WHO, 2022) has identified unsafe food as a major cause of preventable illness, particularly in

developing countries where regulatory oversight is often limited. The findings further provides

valuable baseline data on the bacteriological quality of fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean cake in

the Gwagwaje area of Zaria and highlights the need for targeted food safety interventions. The

comparative approach used in this study is novel and provides important insights into the relative

risks of different fried snacks commonly consumed in Nigerian urban and peri-urban areas.

28
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

This comparative bacteriological assessment of street-vended fried sweet potato, yam, and soybean

cake in the Gwagwaje area of Zaria has revealed alarmingly high levels of bacterial contamination

across all three food types, with Total Aerobic Plate Counts ranging from 4.2 × 10⁶ to 6.3 × 10⁶

CFU/mL significantly exceeding the acceptable limits of 10⁵ CFU/g for ready-to-eat foods as

stipulated by NAFDAC and ICMSF standards. The study identified diverse bacterial contaminants

including Bacillus spp, Clostridium spp, Staphylococcus spp, Enterobacter spp, Klebsiella

spp, Citrobacter spp, Yersinia spp, and Serratia spp, with Bacillus spp being the most prevalent

(27%). These findings underscore the significant public health risks associated with the consumption

of these popular street foods, as the presence of spore-forming bacteria and enteric pathogens

indicates both inadequate frying practices and post-processing contamination resulting from poor

vendor hygiene, unsanitary handling, and exposure to environmental contaminants during display

and vending. The comparative analysis revealed that soybean cake (awara) exhibited the highest

contamination levels, likely due to its high protein and moisture content coupled with extensive

manual processing steps, while yam and sweet potato showed comparable contamination profiles

attributable to their handling and holding practices. This study provides critical baseline data that

confirms street-vended fried snacks in the study area are of poor bacteriological quality and pose a

potential health hazard to consumers, highlighting the urgent need for targeted food safety

interventions in the informal food vending sector.

29
5.2 Recommendations

It is recommended that:

i. Regulatory authorities such as NAFDAC and local government health departments

should organize regular, practical hygiene training workshops for street food vendors in

the Gwagwaje area, emphasizing proper hand washing techniques, use of clean utensils

and serving materials, and the importance of avoiding bare-hand contact with ready-to-

eat foods, particularly during the shaping of soybean cake and serving of fried products.

ii. The Kaduna State Ministry of Health and environmental health officers should institute

regular, unannounced bacteriological monitoring of street-vended foods to ensure

compliance with microbiological standards, with enforcement mechanisms including

vendor education and sanctions for repeated non-compliance to protect public health.

iii. Local government authorities should invest in upgrading market infrastructure to include

access to potable water, proper waste disposal systems, and covered display cases for

street foods to minimize environmental contamination from dust, flies, and vehicular

emissions, thereby reducing post-processing bacterial contamination.

iv. Public health agencies should conduct community-based awareness campaigns to educate

consumers about the risks associated with street-vended foods, safe handling practices,

and the importance of consuming fried snacks immediately after purchase, while also

encouraging vendors to adopt safer practices through consumer demand for hygienically

prepared foods.

30
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