GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT
Diploma in Instrumentation and Control Engineering
Course Code: 1042
M – Scheme

e-TEXTBOOK
on
MESUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS
for
IV Semester DICE
Convener for ICE Discipline:

[Link],
Head of Department/ECE,
[Link] Govt. Polytechnic College for Women,
Tharamani, Chennai - 600 113

Team Members for Industrial Instrumentation:

[Link] Rani,
Lecturer / ICE,
[Link] Government Polytechnic College for Women,
Tharamani, Chennai - 600113

[Link],
Lecturer / ICE,
Government Polytechnic College,
Purasawalkam, Chennai - 600012

[Link],
Lecturer / ECE,
Sri Sairam Polytechnic College,
Sai Leo Nagar, West Tambaram, Chennai – 600044

[Link],
HOD / ECE,
Sri Sairam Polytechnic College,
Sai Leo Nagar, West Tambaram, Chennai – 600044

Validated By

Dr. [Link],
HOD i/c
Department Network Systems & Information Technology,
Guindy Campus, University of Madras,
Chennai – 25
 34242 - MESUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS

UNIT I: - MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Pages 3 - 29

Basic forces for indicating instruments – constructional features of permanent magnet and moving
coil instrument – moving iron instrument – attraction and repulsion types – rectifier type ac volt meter
– ohm meter – series and shunt type – extension of range using shunt and multipliers – analog
Multimeter circuits – dynamo meter type wattmeter - 1φ & 3φ induction type energy meter,
Multifunctional Meters.

UNIT II: - BRIDGES AND OSCILLOSCOPE Pages 30 - 48

Construction, working, balance equation (derivation not required) and application of measurement of
resistance by Wheatstone bridge – measurement of capacitance by Schering bridge – measurement
of inductance by Maxwell’s bridge –measurement of frequency using Wien bridge - RLC meter.
Block diagram of oscilloscope – construction and working of CRT – horizontal deflection and vertical
deflection – time base generator – CRO probes –voltage – current – active – passive probes -
applications of CRO.

UNIT III: - TEST INSTRUMENTS Pages 49 - 79

Block diagram, working and applications of DC power supply –fixed and variable – Audio signal
generator – Function generator – Megger – working and applications. Instrument transformer – CT
and PT – block diagram, working of recorders – XY recorder – strip chart recorder.

UNIT IV: - DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS Pages 80 - 93

Digital vs Analog instruments – Digital volt meter-Integrated type, Ramp type and successive
approximation – Digital Multimeter– auto ranging – auto zeroing – auto polarity – Digital Frequency
Meter –Block diagram- circuit diagram – Digital tachometer – digital panel meter using LCD –
Digital storage oscilloscope, mixed storage oscilloscope.

UNIT V: - OP - AMP APPLICATIONS Pages 94 - 112

Circuit diagram and working of ramp, triangular, square wave generators using operational amplifier
– Differential amplifier – Instrumentation amplifier – Charge amp with zero electric crystal –low pass
and high pass filters using op. amps –PWM - PLL –Functional block diagram Capture range – Lock
range - applications.

1
Text book:
 [Link], A course in Electrical & Electronic measurements and instrumentation,
Dhanpat Rai & sons. 1986.

Reference books:
1. Modern electronics Instrumentation and measurement techniques – ALBERT [Link]
2. Electrical and Electronics measurements and instrumentation – UMESH SINHA,
SATYAPRAKASHAN, Tech India publication 1992.

2
 UNIT – 1
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1.1 Introduction to measuring instruments:

The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the

quantity whose magnitude is unknown and a predefined standard. Since two
quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values. Measurements
involve the use of instruments as a physical means of determining variables.
Instrument can be defined as a device for measuring the value or magnitude
of quantity or variable. Instruments are broadly classified into two categories (i)
Absolute instruments (ii) Secondary instruments. Absolute instruments give the
magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of physical constants of the
instruments. Secondary instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the
instruments. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale.
The instrument which measures the voltage in volts across any two points of a
circuit is called voltmeter while the instrument which measures the current in ampere
is called ammeter. The instruments which are used to measure the power in watts
are called power meters or watt meters. These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument.
Application of measuring instruments:
Measurements and instruments are used for different applications. They are,
1. Monitoring of processes and operation
2. Control of processes and operations
3. Experimental Engineering analysis
1.2 Basic forces for indicating instrument:
There are three types of forces for indicating instrument. They are
1. Deflecting force
2. Controlling force
3. Damping force

3
1.2.1 Deflecting Force

It is also called the operating force. It causes the moving system of the
instrument to move from its zero position to the indicating position. The zero position
of the moving system is the position of it when the instrument connected to the circuit
is disconnected from the supply. This force is made to act by utilizing any one of the
following effect.

1. Magnetic and electromagnetic effect

2. Heating effect

3. Electrostatic effect

4. Induction effect

1.2.2 Controlling Force

The deflecting of the moving system will be infinite if there were no opposing
force. Such an opposing force is called “controlling force”. The system producing
controlling force is called controlling system. The controlling force limits the
movement of the moving system which also ensures that the magnitude of the
deflection is always the same for a given value of the quantity to be measured. The
controlling torque increases in magnitude with deflection till it balances the deflecting
torque. That is for a steady deflection,

Controlling torque = deflecting torque

1.2.3 Damping force:

In a measuring instrument, the damping torque is necessary to bring the
moving system to rest to indicate steady reflection in a reasonable short time called
critical damping. It exists only as long as the pointer is in motion. Under the absence
of damping torque the pointer oscillates for a short period of time and comes to
steady position and this situation is called under damping. If the damping force is too
large, then the pointer will come to rest slowly and this is called as over damping.
These concepts are shown in fig [Link]

4
 Fig [Link] Dynamic response of a measuring instrument

1.3 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments:

These instruments work on the electromagnetic effect. A permanent magnet is
used to produce magnetic flux and a coil that carries the current to be measured
moves in this field. As the pointer is connected to the coil it gets deflected in
proportion with the current.
Working principle:
A current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences a force. It is
given by the expression
F = BIL
Where F = Force in Newton
B = Flux density in Tesla
I = Current in Ampere
L = Length of conductor in Meter
Construction:
A light rectangular coil is wound on a metal frame (usually aluminium) is
pivoted within the air gaps between the two poles of a permanent magnet and a
cylindrical soft iron core. This coil carries the current to be measured. Soft iron core
provides formation of uniform magnetic field. The aluminium frame supports the coil
as well as provides eddy current damping. Two phosphor-bronze springs coiled in
opposite directions serve as leads for the current in the coil.

5
 The springs also provide controlling torque. The moving system is balanced by
three balance weights. The moving spindle is pivoted in jewellery bearings. The
construction of instrument is shown in the fig.1.3.1

Fig 1.3.1 Construction of PMMC instrument

Deflecting torque equation:
Let length of coil be l meter and width of it be d meter. Assume I is the current
flowing in coil having N turns. Assume B as the flux density in the air gap. Then F =
BIL (N)
Torque on each side of the coil = F x d / 2
Total Torque = 2 [BIL.N.d/2] = B I L d N
For a given instrument B, L, d and N are constants.
Td α G I
where
G = B.L.d.N
Controlling torque = Tc
=C.θ
where
C = control spring constant
θ = deflection of coil from zero position
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal to the deflection torque
Tc = T d
C θ=GI
Hence
θαI
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional to current passed through the coil.
Hence the scale of PMMC instruments is a uniform scale.

6
 Advantages:
i. It has uniform scale
ii. Its sensitivity is high
iii. It consumes low power
iv. It is free from hysteresis error
v. Extension of instrument range is possible with the help of shunt and series
resistance.
Disadvantages:
i. The cost of the instrument is high
ii. It is suitable for dc measurements only
iii. Aging of permanent magnets and control springs introduces error

1.4 Moving Iron Instruments:

Where ruggedness is more important than high degree of accuracy, moving

iron instruments are used. The following are the two types of moving iron
instruments.

1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type

1.4.1 Attraction Type Instrument:

Attraction type instrument is shown in fig [Link]. A coil of insulted copper wire
is round wound a hollow bobbin. For a voltmeter, the cross-section of a wire is fine
and it has many numbers of turns. For an ammeter, the coil is thick and it has few
turns.

A small piece of iron, elliptically shaped, is eccentrically pivoted just outside

the coil. Whenever the current passes through a coil, moving iron piece gets
attracted. It is pulled inside the bobbin and deflecting torque is produced. Moving iron
is pivoted by a spindle which carries a pointer.

Moving iron is elliptically shaped so as to obtain a uniform scale. In the figure,

gravity control is shown but a spring control also can be used. Using air friction,
damping torque is provided. So it can be used for ac as work as dc.

7
 Fig [Link] Attraction Type Instrument

1.4.2 Repulsion Type Instrument:

As in fig [Link], a coil is wound around a hollow bobbin. Inside the bobbin two
pieces of soft iron are placed face to face. One piece is fixed to the wall of bobbin
and the other is fixed to the spindle and it is allowed to move.

These iron vanes are similarly magnetized when current flows through the coil.
The force of repulsion is produced between the vanes. Hence moving vane deflects.
The deflection is shown by a pointer on a scale. Controlling torque is produced using
spring. Air friction damping is used to provide damping torque.

Fig [Link] Repulsion Type Instrument

Derivation of deflecting torque equation:

It is based on principle of conservation of energy.

Electrical energy supplied = Change in stored energy + Mechanical work done

Let I = Initial current in Ampere

8
 L = instrument inductance in Henry
θ = deflection in Radians
If current increase by dI, deflection changes by dθ and inductance by dL. To
increase the current by dI, there must be increase in applied voltage given by,

e = d/dt [LI] = L dI/dt + I dL/dt

Electrical energy supplied = eI dt

= LI dI + I2 dL

Change in stored energy = ½ [ I + dI ] 2 [L +dL ] – ½ LI2

= ½ [I2 + 2IdI + DI2] [L +DL] – ½ LI2

Neglecting second and higher order terms, ~ IL dI + ½ I2 dL

According to the principle of conversation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done

I2 dL + LI dI = IL dI + ½ I2 dL + Td d θ

Td d θ = ½ I2 dL

Though basic iron movement has square law response using radial vane design, a
nearly linear scale can be obtained.

Advantages:
 It can be used for a.c. as well as d.c. measurement.

 Instrument is robust as moving parts do not carry current

 Cheapness: For covering large ranges ammeter or voltmeter, fixed coil turns
and cross-section is varied. Single type of moving element can be used for
these different ranges.
Limitations:
 Non uniform scale

 As frequency changes reactance of coil changes, hence calibration of
instruments does not remain same for a.c. and d.c.

 The instrument is subjected to error due to temperature variation,
frequency variation.

9
 Applications:
 Moving iron instruments are rarely used for d.c. measurement except for
very inexpensive indicators such as charge discharge indicators in
automobiles.

 They are used extensively on a.c. where 5 to 10 % error is acceptable.

Comparison between moving coil and moving iron instrument:

[Link] Moving coil instrument Moving iron instrument

1 It can be used for D.C. It can be used for both A.C. and
measurement only. D.C. measurement.

2 It has uniform scale. It has non uniform scale

3 It has very high accuracy Its accuracy is limited

4 The cost of the instrument is high Its cost is comparatively low

5 Aging of permanent magnets and The instrument is subjected to

control springs introduces errors error due to temperature and
frequency variation

1.5 Rectifier type A.C. Voltmeter:

The PMMC movement used in d.c. voltmeters can be effectively used in a.c.
voltmeters. The rectifier is used to convert a.c. voltage to be measured, to d.c. This
d.c., if required is amplified and then given to the PMMC movement. The PMMC
movement gives the deflection proportional to the quantity to be measured.

A.C. voltmeters can be designed in two ways:

1. First rectifying the a.c. signal and then amplifying

2. First amplifying the a.c. signal and then rectifying

10
1.5.1 First Rectifying and then Amplifying A.C. Signal:

In this arrangement simple diode rectifier circuit precedes the amplifier and
the meter. This is shown in the fig [Link]

Fig [Link] Method of rectifying and amplifying a.c. signal

The a.c. input voltage if first rectified using the diode D1. This rectified signal is
then applied to the amplifier of gain A. The amplified signal is then given to the basic
PMMC meter to obtain the deflection. This approach ideally requires a d.c. amplifier
with zero drift characteristics and a d.c. meter movement with high sensitivity. The
resistance R2 indicates input resistance of the meter.

1.5.2 First Amplifying and then Rectifying A.C. Signal:

In this approach, the a.c. input signal which is a small signal is amplified first
and then rectified after the sufficient amplification. The a.c. signal is applied to an
amplifier and hence amplifier is necessarily an a.c. amplifier. This type of approach is
shown in the Fig [Link]

Fig [Link] Method of Amplifying and Rectifying A.C. Signal

The a.c. amplifier requires a high open loop gain and the large amount of
negative feedback to overcome the nonlinearity of the rectifier diodes. The amplifier
output is then applied to full wave rectifier consisting of diodes D1 and D2. The
diodes are nonlinear devices, particularly at the low values of the forward current.

11
 Due to this nonlinear behavior of the diodes, the meter scale is also nonlinear
and is crowded at the lower end of a low range voltmeter. In this, region, the meter
sensitivity is also very low because of high forward resistance of the diode.
Dependence of diode characteristics on temperature is also an important factor in
a.c. voltmeters.

1.6 Ohmmeter:

The ohmmeter is a convenient direct reading device for measurement of

resistance. These instruments have a low degree of accuracy. There is a wide field of
application for this instrument in determining the approximate value of resistance. An
ohmmeter is useful for determining the approximate resistance of circuit components
such as heater elements or machine field coils, measuring and sorting of resistors
used in electronic circuits, checking of semiconductor diodes and for checking
continuity of circuits. It is also useful in laboratories as an aid to a precision bridge, for
it can help to know the approximate value of resistance which can save time in
balancing the bridge.

1.6.1 Series-type Ohmmeter:

A circuit of a series-type ohmmeter is shown in Fig [Link]. It consists

of basic d’ Arsonval movement connected in parallel with a shunting resistor R 2. This
parallel circuit is in series with resistance R1 and a battery of emf E. The series circuit
is connected to the terminals A and B of the unknown resistance R.

Fig [Link] Series-type Ohmmeter

12
 R1 = current limiting resistor,

R2 = zero adjusting resistors,

E = emf of internal battery,

and

Rm = internal resistance of d’ Arsonval movement.

When the unknown resistance R = 0 (terminals A and B shorted) maximum

current flows through the meter. Under this condition resister R2 is adjusted until the
basic movement (meter) indicates full scale current Ifs. The full-scale current position
of the pointer is marked “0 Ω“ on the scale. Similarly when R is removed from circuit,
R = ∞ (that is when terminals A and B are open) the current in the meter drops to
zero and the movement indicates zero current which is the marked ” ∞“. Thus the
meter will read infinite resistance at the zero current position and zero resistance at
full scale current position.

Since zero resistance is indicated when the current in the meter is maximum
and hence the pointer goes to the top mark. When the unknown resistance is inserted
at terminals A, B the current through the meter is reduced and hence pointer drops
lower on the scale. Therefore the meter has “0” at extreme right and “∞“ at the
extreme left. Intermediate scale markings may be placed on the scale by different
known values of resistance R to the instrument.

1.6.2 Shunt type ohmmeter:

The circuit diagram of a shunt type ohmmeter is shown in Fig [Link]. It

consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistor R1 and a basic d ‘ Arsonval
movement (meter). The unknown resistance is connected across terminals A and B,
Parallel with the meter. In this circuit it is necessary to have an “off-on” switch to
disconnect the battery from the circuit when the instrument is not in use.

When the unknown resistor Rx = 0 Ω (A and B are shorted), the meter current
is zero. If the unknown resistance Rx = ∞ (A and B are open), the current finds path
only through the meter and selecting a proper value for resistance R1, the pointer

13
 may be made to read full scale. This ohmmeter therefore has “zero” mark on the left
hand side of the scale (no current) and infinite mark on the right hand side of the
scale (full scale deflection current).

Fig [Link] Shunt type ohmmeter

1.7 Extension of range using shunt:

 The basic circuit consists of D’Arsonval galvanometer.


 The coil winding of basic movement is small and it is light in weight. So this
coil enables small currents to pass through it.

 If it is required to pass current larger than 100 mA through the coil, then the
construction becomes bulky.

 In order to avoid this, a resistor is connected in parallel with the basic
movement.

 This resister is called as shunt resistor.

 Its value is small. So major amount of current passes through it and a small
current passes through the coil.

 The different notations used in figure are as follows

I = Total current to be measured

Rsh = Shunt resistor

Ish = current passing through shunt resistor

14
 Rm = Internal resistance of the coil

Im = Full scale deflection current (Ifsd)

Fig 1.7.1 Extension of range using shunt

Now as shown in figure 1.7.1, resistor Rsh and Rm are parallel to each other. So the
voltage drop across two resistors is same.

[Link] = ImRm

Rsh = ImRm (1)

Ish
But we have, I = Ish+Im
Ish = I - Im

putting this value in equation (1) we get,

RSh = ImRm
I - Im
dividing both the numerator and denominator by I m we get,
RSh = Rm (2)
I / Im-1
Now we will define the term ‘’multiplying power of the shunt’’. It is defined as the zero
of total current (I) to the current passing through the coil (Im). It is denoted by ‘m’

m = I / Im

Putting this value in equation (2) we get,

RSh = Rm / (m-1)

mRSh - RSh = Rm

15
 m RSh = Rm + RSh

m = (Rm + RSh) / RSh

m = (Rm / RSh ) + 1

1.8 Extension of range using multiplier:

 The basic meter is based on the PMMC D’ Arsonval movement.


 In this case the current cause the deflection of meter.

 The current required to cause the full scale deflection of a meter is termed as
full scale deflection current. It is denoted by I fsd.

 The basic dc voltmeter is as shown in fig 1.8.1

Fig 1.8.1 Extension of range using multiplier

 The basic meter can be converted into dc voltmeter by adding a series

resistance. This series resistance is called as multiplier.

 The function of this resistance is to control the current passing to the meter.

 It does not allow the current to exceed the value of full scale deflection current.
This series resistance is denoted by Rs

 The do voltmeter is used to measure the voltage drop between two points in a
dc circuit.

 To measure the dc voltage, the voltmeter is connected to these two points with
proper polarity.

 Referring to figure 1.7.1, we can write,

V = Ifsd (Rs+Rm) (1)

16
 Here,

Ifsd = Full scale deflection current

Rs = Series resistance (multiplier)

Rm = Internal resistance of meter

V = Input dc voltage

 The value of multiplier should be selected properly so that the current does not
exceed the value of Ifsd.

 From equation (1) we get,

Rs+ Rm = V / Ifsd

Rs = ( V / Ifsd ) - Rm (2)

Equation (2) gives the value of series resistance (multiplier).

1.9 Analog Multimeter:

The schematic circuit of a typical multimeter is shown in fig 1.9. The circuit
incorporates the functions of ammeter, voltmeter and ohm meter into one unit which
gives versatility and economy that could not be obtained by the use of individual
instruments. The combinational of various circuits into one unit is achieved by the use
of rotary selector switches S1, S2 and S3.

Fig 1.9 Analog multimeter

17
1.9.1 Voltmeter circuit:

The multimeter circuit shown in figure has voltmeter circuit for the
measurements of D.C. and A.C. voltages.

i. D.C. Voltage measurements:

Here, there are voltmeter ranges with multiplier resistance R 1 and R2 as
shown. One range is obtained when switch S1 is thrown to position 1 and second
range is obtained when this switch is thrown to position 2.

The direct voltage to be measured is applied across the terminals A and B of

the multimeter. Suppose that switch S1 is thrown to position 1 for the voltage
measurement. Tracing the circuit from the left hand terminal A, through switch S, we
find that multiplier resistance R1 is in series with the meter M and the circuit is
completed through switch S3 to the terminal B of the multimeter. Thus, the meter
having high series resistance R1 acts as a voltmeter.

It may be noted that switch S2 is not utilized in the circuit as it has no

connection in position 1 and position 2.

ii. A.C voltage measurement:

Here, one have two voltmeter ranges with multimeter resistances R 7 and R8.
One range is obtained when switch S1 is thrown to position 7 and the second range is
obtained when this switch is thrown to position 8.

The alternating voltage to be measured is applied across the terminal A and B

of the multimeter. Suppose switch S1 is thrown to position 7 for voltage measurement.
Let us trace the circuit from the left hand terminal A of the multimeter. We go from
terminal A to position 7 through switch S1, to multiplier resistance R7 and to
resistance R9. After R9, the circuit branches off into two positions:

a) One branch circuit is through diode D1 to meter M, to switch S3 and through S3

to the terminal B of the multimeter.
b) Second branch circuit is through D2 to the terminal B of the multimeter. Clearly,
this diode is across the meter M.

18
 During the positive half of the alternating voltage to be measured the current
conduction is through first branch i.e. through R7, R9, D1 meter M to terminal B. No
condition is possible through diode D2 as it is connected to oppose the current flow on
this half cycle. During the negative half cycle, the current cycle is through the second
branch i.e. through R7, R9, D2 to terminal B. No current flows through the meter on
this half. The meter thus operates for ½ cycle of a.c. sine wave.

1.9.2 Ammeter Circuit:

Here, we have two ammeter ranges with shunt resistances R 3 and R4. One
range is obtained when switch S1 s thrown to position 3 and the second range is
obtained when this switch is thrown to position 4.

The multimeter is connected in series with circuit in which current is to be

measured. Suppose switch S1 is thrown to position 3 for current measurement. Let us
trace the circuit from left hand terminal A of the multimeter. We go from terminal A to
position 3 through switch S1. At position 3, the current divides into two branches:

a) One path is through meter M to switch S3 and from S3 to terminal B of the

multimeter.
b) Second path is through switch S2 to shunt resistance R4 and to terminal B of
the multimeter. Clearly, shunt resistance R4 is across the meter M.

Thus, the meter M having a low shunt resistance across it acts an ammeter.

1.9.3 Ohm meter circuit:

Here, there are two ohm meter ranges with series resistances R 5 and R6. One
range is obtained when switch S1 is thrown to position 5 and the second range is
obtained when this switch is thrown to position 6. Note that position 5 and 6 of switch
S3 are shorted together so that battery of V volts remains in the circuits for either
range.

The resistance to be measured is connected across the terminal A ans B of

the multimeter. Suppose the switch S1 is thrown to position 5 for resistance
measurement.

19
 Tracing the circuit, from left hand terminal A, we find that we go through
resistance R5 to meter M, to switch S3 to battery and then to terminal B. It may be
seen that battery, meter M and R5 are in series, a basic circuit for ohm meter.

1.10 Dynamometer type wattmeter:

These types of instruments have two coils. The two coils are connected in
different circuits for measurement of power. The fixed coil or “field coils” are
connected in series with the load and so carry the current in the circuit. The fixed
coils, therefore form the current coil or simply C.C of the wattmeter.

The moving coil is connected across the voltage and, therefore, carries a
current proportional to the voltage. So it is called the pressure coil or simply called
P.C of the wattmeter.

1.10.1 Construction of dynamometer wattmeter:

The wattmeter consists of two coils namely (a) one set of fixed coil (b) single
moving coil as shown in fig [Link]. The fixed coil is made of two parts and the
moving coil is placed between the two fixed coils.

The fixed coil is used as a current coil. The current coil are made of few turns
of thick copper wire and are connected in series with the load to carry the load
current. The moving coil is used as a pressure coil. The pressure coil is made of
several turns of fine copper wire. A high non inductive resistance is connected in
series with the moving coil in order to limit the current.

The jewel supported spindle carrying the pressure coil also carries a pointer, a
damping vane and control springs. The pointer is fixed to the pressure coil spindle
and moves over a suitably calibrated scale. A cast iron cylinder is placed around the
coil to protect against stray magnetic fields. The moving system of the wattmeter is
usually spring controlled. Air friction damping is used. The pointer is made of
aluminium. The pointer is made thin and the front part is flattened.

20
 Fig [Link]. Construction of dynamometer wattmeter

Operation:

The two parts of the fixed coil carry load current and create a flux in the air gap
between them. The pressure coil carries another small current proportional to load
voltage and hence produces a flux in the air gap. The current coil produces a flux
which is in phase with the load current.

The flux produced by the pressure coil is very nearly in phase with the applied
voltage. The magnetic fields of fixed and moving coils react on one another causing
the moving coil to turn about its axis and a torque is produced on the moving system.
This torque is proportional to the product of voltage and current.

Td ∞ V I

Td ∞ power

It is concluded that wattmeter reads both a.c and d.c circuit powers.

Advantages:

(i) It can be used to measure power in d.c as well as a.c circuits

(ii) It gives fairly accurate power
(iii) The scale is uniform
(iv) Power consumption is low.

21
 Disadvantages:

(i) Cost is high

(ii) Affected by stray magnetic field
(iii) At low power factors, the inductance of pressure coil introduces serious error

1.11 Energy meters:

Energy is the product of power and time

Energy = power x time

Energy is measured by means of the energy meter (watt-hour meter). It is an

integrating instrument. Generally unit of energy is given by kilowatt hour. An energy
meter is used to indicate the energy supplied or consumed.
1.11.1 Single phase energy meter:

Induction type instruments are most commonly used as energy meters.

Energy meter is an integrating instrument which measures quantity of electricity.
Induction type of energy meters are universally used for domestic and industrial
applications. These meters record the energy in kilo – watt – hours (kWh).

It works on the principle of induction i.e. on the production of eddy currents in

the moving system by the alternating fluxes. These eddy currents induced in the
moving system interact with each other to produce a driving torque due to which disc
rotates to record the energy. In the energy meter there is no controlling torque and
thus due to driving torque only, a continuous rotation of the disc is produced. To have
constant speed of rotation breaking magnet is provided. The circuit diagram of single
phase energy meter is shown in Fig [Link]

22
 Fig [Link] Single phase energy meter

Construction:

There are four main parts of operating mechanism.

1. Driving system

2. Moving system

3. Breaking system

4. Registering system

Driving system:

It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel

lamination. The coil of one of the electromagnets, called current coil, is excited by
load current which produces flux further. The coil of another electromagnet is
connected across the supply and it carries current proportional to supply voltage.
This coil is called pressure coil. These two electromagnets are called series and
shunt magnets respectively. The flux produced by shunt magnet is brought in exact
quadrature with supply voltage with the help of copper shading bands whose position
is adjustable.

23
Moving system:

Light aluminium disc mounted in a light alloy shaft is the main part of moving
system. This disc is position in between series and shunt magnets. It is supported
between jewel bearings. The moving system runs on hard and steel pivot. A pinion
engages the shaft with the counting mechanism. There are no spring and no
controlling torque.

Breaking system:

A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminium disc for breaking

mechanism. These magnets reproduce its own field. The disc moves in the field of
this magnet and a breaking torque is obtained. The position of the magnet is
adjustable and hence braking torque is adjusted by shifting this magnet to different
radial positions. This magnet is called breaking magnet.

Registering mechanism:

It records continuously a number which is proportional to the revolutions made

by the aluminium disc. By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears, the pinion on
the shaft drives a series of pointers. These pointers rotate on round dials which are
equally marked with equal divisions.

Working:

Since the pressure coil is carried by shunt magnet which is connected across
the supply, it carries current proportional to the voltage. Series magnet carries current
coil which carries the load current. Both this coil produce alternative fluxes ɸ 1 and ɸ2
respectively. This fluxes are proportional to current in there coils.

Parts of each of this fluxes link with the disc and induces e.m.f. in it. Due to the
e.m.f. eddy currents are induced in the disc. The eddy current induced in the shunt
magnet reactive with magnetic field produced by series magnet. Also eddy current
induced by series magnet reactive with magnetic field produced by shunt magnet.
Thus each portion of the disc experiences a mechanical force and due to motor
action, disc rotate.

24
 The speed of the disc controlled by the C shaped magnet called breaking
magnet. When disc rotate in the air gap, eddy current are induced in disc which
oppose the cause producing them i.e. relative motion of disc with respect to magnet.
Hence breaking torque Tb is generated. This is proportional to speed N of disc. By
adjusting position of this magnet, desired speed of disc is obtained. Spindle is
connected to recording mechanism through gears which record the energy supplied.

1.11.2 Three phase energy meter:

In a three phase, the measurement of energy is to be carried out by a three

phase energy meter. This meter consists of three elements. The construction of an
individual element is similar to that of a single phase energy meter. The pressure
coils are denoted as P1, P2 and P3. The current coils are denoted as C1, C2 and C3.
All the elements are mounted in a vertical line in common case and have a common
spindle, gearing and registering mechanism. The coils are connected in such a
manner that the net torque produced is sum of the torques due to all the three
elements. Three phase energy meter diagram is shown in fig [Link]

Fig [Link] Three phase energy meter

25
1.11.3 Adjustments in energy meter:

The adjustments are required in the energy meters so that they read
accurately with minimum possible errors.

Main speed adjustment:

The measurement of energy is dependent on the speed of rotating disc. For

accurate measurement, speed of the disk must be also proportionate. The speed of
the meter can be adjusted by means of changing the effective radius of the breaking
magnet.

Power factor adjustment:

It is necessary that meter should measure correctly for all power factor
conditions of the loads. To have this adjustment, the shading ring called quadrature
loop is provided on the center limb of shunt magnet carrying pressure coil. The fine
adjustments can be achieved by the movement of this loop upward or downward and
meter can be made to read accurately at all the power factors.

Friction adjustment:

In spite of proper design of the bearings and registering mechanism, there

exists some friction. Due to this, speed of the meter gets affected which cause error
in measurement.

To compensate for this, a metallic loop or strip is provided between central

limb of shunt magnet and the disc. Due to this strip an additional torque independent
of the load is produced which acts on the disc in the direction of rotation. This
compensates for the friction and meter can be made to read accurately.

Creep adjustment:

It is seen that, without any current through current coil, disk rotates due to
supply voltage exciting pressure coil. This is called creeping. To eliminate this two
holes are drilled in the disc 180° opposite to each other. When this hole comes under
the shunt magnet pole, it gets acted upon by a torque opposite to its rotation. This
restricts its rotation, on no load condition.

26
1.12 Multi functional meter:
Multi functional meter measures all electrical parameters such as RMS
voltage, current, active power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, phase
angle, frequency, active energy, reactive energy, apparent energy, demand in 3
phase 4 wire and 3 phase 3 wire system.

1.12.1Theory of Operation

The theory of operation of multi functional meter is described in conjunction

with the block diagram shown in Fig 1.12.1.

Fig 1.12.1 Multi functional meter

Sensing Devices:

Voltages are sensed by three separate high impedance resistive voltage

dividers and currents are sensed by up to three separate resistive current divider
structures. The sensors provide scaled signals to the Data Acquisition Platform
(DAP) chip.

27
Data Acquisition:

The Data Acquisition Platform (DAP) chip contains six independent, fully
integrated analog to digital converters, one for each current and voltage signal. For a
full three element meter, 6 sets of 16-bit samples are processed.

Microcomputer:

The microcomputer is a 32-bit expandable single chip microcomputer. It

receives 16 bit data samples from the DAP chip. The microcomputer provides all
data processing functions, including sample processing and digital filtering,
accumulations, products and calculation of advanced quantities. It does time keeping
and provides all register and display functions of the meter. It uses non volatile
memories on the circuit board for storage of metered data and program parameters.

Nonvolatile Memory:

The meter is equipped with two nonvolatile memory devices. All data values
and program parameters are stored in semiconductor nonvolatile memory. EEPROM
memory stores programmed operating parameters and meter data. Flash memory is
used for special program provisions and memory intensive data requirements. Meter
data quantities are updated at each power fail event. Stored data is constantly
checked to prevent errors.

28
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART – A (2 Marks)
1. What is measurement?
2. Define instrument and list its categories
3. Define absolute instrument
4. Define secondary instrument
5. Mention the units of different electrical parameters measured using instruments
6. Discuss about deflecting force
7. Write short notes on controlling force
8. Mention the relationship between deflection and current in PMMC instrument
9. List the types of moving iron instruments
10. Mention the applications of moving iron instrument
11. List the type by which rectifier type A.C. voltmeter can be designed
12. What is ohmmeter?
13. Mention the types of ohmmeter.
PART – B (3 Marks)
1. List the types of forces acting on indicating instrument
2. Write short notes on damping force
3. Discuss about the working principle of PMMC instrument
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instrument
5. Compare moving coil and moving iron instruments
6. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of Moving iron instruments
7. Define the term “multiplying power of the shunt”
8. List the advantages and disadvantages of dynamometer type wattmeter
9. List the different adjustments in energy meter

1. Explain the construction and working of PMMC instrument

2. Derive an expression for deflecting torque of moving coil instrument
3. Explain briefly attraction and repulsion type moving iron instruments
4. Derive an expression for deflecting torque of moving iron instrument
5. Explain in detail about the design of rectifier type A.C. voltmeter
6. Discuss about series type ohmmeter
7. Write short notes on shunt type ohmmeter
8. Explain how a basic meter range can be extended using shunt resistor
9. Explain how a basic meter range can be extended using series resistor
10. Explain the working of analog multimeter with neat diagram
11. Explain the operation of dynamometer type wattmeter
12. Explain the operation of single phase energy meter
13. Explain the operation of three phase energy meter
14. Discuss about different methods of adjustments made in energy meter for making the
meter to read accurately
15. Explain the block diagram of multi functional meter.

29
 UNIT – II

BRIDGES AND OSCILLOSCOPE

2.1 Introduction to bridges:

Bridge circuits of various types are used in Instrumentation systems for the
measurement of resistance, inductance and capacitance. The bridges may be either
of the two types viz: (i) d.c. type and (ii) a.c. type. There are certain advantages of
bridge technique. These are as follows:

(i) The measurement accuracy is very high. This is because in this method an
unknown value is compared with known standard value.
(ii) Accuracy is directly proportional to the accuracy of bridge component and not
on the accuracy of null indicator.
(iii) The balance equation of the bridge is not dependent on the magnitude of input
voltage.
(iv) The balance condition of the bridge is not affected even if the source and
detector are interchanged.

Comparison of AC and DC Bridge:

[Link]. DC bridge AC bridge

1 D.C bridge is used for the A.C bridge is used for the
measurement of unknown measurement of unknown
resistance capacitance and inductance
2 It needs DC supply for its It needs AC supply for its
operation operation
3 They are less stable than ac They are more stable and
bridges accurate
4 Dc bridge circuits have more They have lower noise
noise
5 They are comparatively slower The bridges are faster in
than ac bridges operation
6 Ex. Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin Ex. Maxwell bridge, schering
bridge bridge

30
2.2 Wheatstone bridge:

It is the most commonly used DC bridge for measurement of resistance. A

Wheatstone bridge has been in use longer than almost any electrical measuring
instrument. It is still an accurate and reliable instrument and is extensively used in
industry.

Fig 2.2.1 Wheatstone bridge

Fig 2.2.1 shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone bridge. It has four resistive
arms, consisting of resistances P, Q, R and S together with source of emf (a battery)
and a null detector, usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter. The
current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between point B
and D. The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer or when the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero.

For bridge balance, we can write:

I1P = I2R

For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions also exist:

I1 = E / (P + Q) (1)

and

I2 = E / (R + S) (2)

where E = emf of the battery

31
Combining and simplifying (1) and (2), we obtain

P / (P + Q) = R / (R + S)

From which

QR = PS

The above equation is the well known expression for the balance of
Wheatstone bridge. If three of the resistance is known, the fourth may be determined
from equation

R = P S

where R is the unknown resistance S is called ‘standard arm’ of the bridge and P and
Q are called the ‘ratio arms’.

Applications:

(i) It is used to measure the resistance value of unknown resistors of the

range 0.1Ω to 1,00,000Ω

(ii) It is used for measurement of small resistance changes that occur in

passive resistive transducers like strain gauges, thermistors and
resistive thermometers

(iii) It is used to measure the inductance, capacitance and frequency by

suitably arranging the components of different arms.

(iv) It is used to measure Q factor, dissipation factors of coils and capacitors

32
2.3 Schering bridge:

This is one of the most important and useful bridge circuits available for
measurement of capacitance, dielectric loss of a capacitor.

Fig 2.3.1 Schering bridge

The basic circuit arrangement is shown in fig 2.3.1. In this first and second arm
contains only a capacitor. The third arm contains only a variable resistor. The fourth
arm contains a parallel combination of a resistor and a variable capacitor.
C1 = capacitor whose capacitor is to be determined
C2 = a standard air capacitor
R3 = variable a non-inductive resistor
C4 = a variable capacitor
R4 = fixed non -inductive resistor in parallel with variable capacitor C 4
Under balanced condition, the real and imaginary terms are equated.
R1 = C4 R3
C2
C1 = R4 C2
R3
Two independent balance equations are obtained if C4 and R4 are chosen as the
variable elements.

33
 Applications:
(i) Schering bridge is used for measuring power factors of cables.
(ii) It is used for the measurement of relative permittivity of an insulating
material.
(iii) It is used for measuring the insulating properties of electrical cables and
equipment.

2.4 Maxwell’s bridge:

This bridge circuit measures an inductance by comparison with a variable

standard self – inductance. The circuit arrangement is shown in fig 2.4.1

Fig 2.4.1 Maxwell’s bridge

L1 = unknown inductance

L2 = variable inductance of fixed resistance

R2 = variable resistance connected in series with inductor L 2

R3, R4 = known non-inductive resistances.

At balance,

L1 = R3 L 2

R4

34
 and R1 = R3 R2

R4

Applications:
(i) Maxwell bridge is used for measuring iron losses of the transformer at
audio frequency
(ii) It is used for calibrating electromagnetic seismograph
(iii) It is used for measuring medium “Q” of coils.

2.5 Wien bridge:

The Wien’s Bridge is primarily known as a frequency determining bridge and is

described here not only for its use as an a.c. bridge to measure frequency but also for
it’s application in various other useful circuits. Fig 2.5.1 shows a Wien’s Bridge under
balance conditions.

Fig 2.5.1 Wien bridge

At balance the real and imaginary parts are equated.

R3 / R4 = R1 / R2 + C2 / C1

and frequency f = 1 / 2π√ R1 R2 C1 C2 Hz

In most Wien Bridges, the components are so chosen that

R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C

35
 Then equation reduces to

R3 / R4 = 2

f = 1 / 2πR C

Because of its frequency sensitivity, the Wien’s Bridge may be difficult to

balance unless the wave form of the applied voltage is sinusoidal. The bridge not
balanced for any harmonics present in the applied voltage, so that harmonics will
sometimes produce an output voltage masking the true balance point. This difficulty
can be overcome by connecting a filter in series with the null detector.

Applications:

(i) This bridge is suitable for measurement of frequencies from 100Hz to

100 KHz. It is possible to obtain an accuracy of 0.1 to 0.5 per cent.
(ii) It may be used for measurement of capacitance also.
(iii) It may be employed in harmonic distortion analyzer, where it is used as
notch filter, discriminating against one specific frequency.
(iv) It also finds applications in audio and HF oscillators as the frequency
determining device.

2.6 RLC meter:

An RLC meter is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure the

inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic component. In the
simpler versions of this instrument the impedance was measured internally and
converted for display to the corresponding capacitance or inductance value.

Readings should be reasonably accurate if the capacitor or inductor device

under test does not have a significant resistive component of impedance. More
advanced designs measure true inductance or capacitance, as well as the equivalent
series resistance of capacitors and the Q factor of inductive components.

36
 Operation:

Fig 2.6.1 Block diagram of RLC meter

The block diagram RLC meter is shown in fig 2.6.1. Usually the device under
test (DUT) is subjected to an AC voltage source. The meter measures the voltage
across and the current through the DUT. From the ratio of these the meter can
determine the magnitude of the impedance. The phase angle between the voltage and
current is also measured in more advanced instruments; in combination with the
impedance, the equivalent capacitance or inductance, and resistance, of the DUT can
be calculated

2.7 Introduction to CRO:

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a very useful and versatile laboratory
instrument used for display, measurement and analysis of waveforms. CROs are also
used to investigate waveforms, transient phenomena and other time varying quantities
from a very low frequency range to the radio frequencies.

It is an electronic device, which gives the visual indication of signal waveforms.

It can be used to study the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude, distortion
and deviation from the normal. It can also be used to measure voltage, frequency and
phase shift.

37
2.7.1 Block diagram of CRO

Fig [Link] Block diagram of CRO

The block diagram of CRO is shown in fig [Link]. The various blocks of CRO
are as follows.

1. CRT
It consists of an electron gun. The electron gun produces an electron beam.
This beam is narrow and is allowed to pass down the tube, and to fall on the screen.
The screen is formed by the flat end of glass tube which is coated with the fluorescent
material. The point at which the electron beam strikes the screen, a spot is formed.
The electron beam passes through two pairs of electrostatic deflection plates i.e. the
horizontal and vertical deflecting plates.
The voltages which are applied to these plates defect the beam. Horizontal
deflecting plates move the spot in horizontal direction and vertical deflecting plates
move the spot on the screen in vertical direction. These two movements i.e. vertical
and horizontal are independent of each other and thus the beam may be displayed
anywhere on the screen.

2. Vertical amplifier
The signal to be examined is applied to the vertical deflection plate through the
input attenuator and vertical amplifier. Vertical amplifier is used to amplify the input
signal. In some cases, high voltage signal are to be examined. In such cases, a
calibrated attenuator is used to bring the high voltage signal within the range of
vertical amplifier.

38
3. Time base Generator

The time base generator is used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to
deflect the beam in the horizontal section.

4. Horizontal amplifier

Horizontal amplifier is also called as X amplifier. The sawtooth voltage is

produced by the time base generator may not be of sufficient strength. Hence before
applying this voltage to the horizontal deflection plates it is amplified using the
horizontal amplifier.

5. Trigger circuit

The trigger circuit produces trigger pulse to start sawtooth signal (sweep) .To
get a steady waveform in the CRO screen, vertical input signal frequency must be
equal to or an exact multiple of time base generator signal frequency. This is done by
the triggering circuit. A sample of input signal is fed to the trigger circuit through
vertical amplifier, to achieve synchronization.

6. Delay line

The purpose of delay line is to delay the arrival of the input signal at the vertical
deflection plates, until the trigger and time base circuits start the sweep of the beam.

7. Power supply

The power supply provides the voltage required by the CRT to generate,
accelerate and focus the electron beam and for other electronic circuits. High voltage
(HV) supply is connected to the accelerating and focusing anodes of the CRT. The low
voltage (LV) supply is given to the heater, control grid of CRT and other electronic
circuits of CRO.

39
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERTION OF CRO

The signal to be examined or displayed is fed to the vertical amplifier of the

CRO. Its amplified input is sent to the vertical deflection plates (Y input). At the same
time a sawtooth voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates (X input).

In an oscilloscope, the electrons are emitted from a cathode. They are

accelerated to a high velocity and brought to focus on fluorescent screen. The screen
produces a visible spot (Luminous spot) where the electron beam strikes. This
luminous spot is moved over the display area in response to an input voltage.

The CRO uses a horizontal input voltage, which is a sawtooth voltage. This
voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in a horizontal direction from left to right
over the display area of the screen.

The vertical input voltage moves the spot up and down in accordance with the
instantaneous value of voltage. Due to the effect of both voltages, the luminous spot
traces the waveform of the input signal with respect to time and can be observed on
the screen.

2.7.2 Working of CRT:

The cathode ray tube is the heart of the CRO. The main parts of the CRT are

a. Electron gun assembly

b. Deflection plate assembly
c. Fluorescent screen
d. Glass tube
e. Base.

40
Fig. [Link] shows the internal structure of a CRT

Fig. [Link] Internal structure of a CRT

(a) Electron Gun Assembly:

The arrangement of electrodes which produces a focused beam of electrons is

called the electron gun. It essentially consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a
control grid, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode. The control grid is held at
negative potential with respect to cathode whereas the two anodes are maintained at
high positive potential with respect to cathode.

The cathode is a nickel cylinder, coated with an oxide coating to provide plenty
of electrons. The control grid is a metal cylinder with tiny circular opening to limit the
size of the electron beam.

The focusing anode focuses the electron beam into a sharp pin point. The
electron gun assembly forms a narrow, accelerated beam of electrons to produce a
spot of light on striking the screen.

(b) Deflection Plate Assembly:

When the electron beam is accelerated by the accelerating anodes it passes

through the deflection plate assembly. The deflection plate assembly of the CRT
consists of the two pairs of parallel plates.

41
 These plates are called as the vertical deflecting plate and the horizontal
deflecting plate. The electron beam can be made to move up and down & right and
left on the screen by vertical and horizontal deflection plates respectively.

3. Fluorescent Screen:
The front end of CRT acts as a fluorescent screen. An inner side of the screen
is coated with phosphor. When high velocity electron beam strikes the screen, a spot
of light is produced at the point of impact.

4. Glass Tube:
The components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called the
envelope. The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are coated with
conducting material, called aquadag. Hence the electrons which strikes the walls
accidently, and the electrons resulting from secondary emission from the screen due
to electron beam bombardment are returned to anode.

5. Base:
The base is provided to the CRT through which the connections are made to
various parts.

2.7.3 Horizontal deflection system:

The horizontal deflection system consists of

(a) Time base generator (b) Trigger Circuit (c) Horizontal amplifier

(a) Time base generator :

The time base generator is used to generate saw tooth voltage, which will
deflect the beam in the horizontal direction. The CRT spot is deflected at a constant
time dependent rate because of the voltage. Time axis is represented as X axis on the
screen.

(b) Trigger Circuit:

It is a circuit, which ensures that the horizontal sweep begins at the same point
the vertical input signal. Without the trigger circuit, there will not be synchronization
between sweep signal and the signal.

42
 (c) Horizontal amplifier:

It is required to increase the amplitude of the signals generated in the sweep

generator to a level, which is required by the horizontal deflection plates of the CRT.

2.7.4 Vertical deflection system:

The signals to be examined are usually applied to the vertical or Y deflection

plates through an input attenuator and a number of amplifier stages. Vertical amplifier
is required because the signals are not strong enough to produce measurable
deflection on the CRT screen. The amplifier response must be wide enough to pass
faithfully the entire band of frequencies to be measured.

When high voltage signals are to be examined, they must be attenuated to

bring them within the range of vertical amplifier. The vertical amplifier output is also
applied to the synchronizing amplifier through the synchronizer selector switch in the
internal position. This permits the horizontal sweep circuit to be triggered by the signal
being investigated.

2.7.5 Time base Generator:

The time base generator is used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to
deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The CRT spot is deflected at a constant
time dependent rate because of the voltage. Time axis is represented as X axis on the
screen.

2.8 CRO probes:

The CRO probe is used to connect the vertical amplifier to the circuit under
measurement, without loading the circuit. Fig 2.8.1 shows typical general purpose
probe

Fig 2.8.1 Block diagram of general purpose probe

43
 The probe head may contain a signal sensing circuitry. This circuit may be
passive such as a parallel combination of resistor and a capacitor. It may also be
active, such as a FET source follower with associated elements. A coaxial cable is
used to couple the probe head to the main circuit. The termination circuit provides the
CRO with source impedance and terminates the coaxial cable with its characteristic
impedance.

2.8.1 Voltage probe

As the name suggests these probes are used for high voltage applications.
High voltage probes can be used in the range of 1 to 5 KV. Large amount of insulation
is required for such probes. They have high input impedance from 10 MΩ to 1000MΩ.
Fig. [Link] shows the diagram of a typical 1000 : 1 voltage probe.

Fig [Link] Voltage probe

2.8.2 Current probe:

The current probe consists of a sensor, coaxial cable and a termination circuit.
Fig [Link] shows a split core current probe.

Fig [Link] Current probe

44
 This can be opened and clipped around a conductor whose current is to be
measured. The current sensing device, current transformer is of split core design,
consisting of a stationary U piece and a movable flat piece. A multi turn coil of about
25 turns is wound on one leg of the ferrite core to form the secondary transformer
winding. The conductor under test is the single turn primary.
The input signal to the probe is the current in the conductor under test and the
output is the voltage developed across the transformer secondary. Since the current
probe senses only changes in current it can only be used for measuring ac signals.

2.8.3 Active probe:

The most widely used active probe is the FET probe shown in Fig [Link]

Fig [Link] Block diagram of active probe

The field effect transistor is used in the source follower configuration, as the
active input element. The FET probe also consists of three parts, the probe head, the
coaxial cable and the termination. The probe head consists of a FET source follower
along with emitter follower driver amplifier to drive the coaxial cable.

2.8.4 Passive probe

The most widely used passive probe is the compensated 10X probe shown in
Fig [Link]

Fig [Link] Passive probe

45
 The probe head contains attenuating resistor R1 shunted by a small
variable capacitor C1 for probe compensation. When the 10X attenuator probe is
first connected to the CRO, compensating capacitor C1 must be adjusted for
optimum frequency response of the probe, CRO combination. This adjustment is
done by using a test 1 KHz square wave generator.

2.9 Applications of CRO:

CRO is used for
i) the measurement of frequency
ii) the measurement of phase of the waveform
iii) the measurement of voltage
iv) the measurement of current
v) studying waveforms

47
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

PART – A (2 Marks)

1. Write the importance of bridge circuit

2. List the types of bridges
3. Write the balance equation for wheatstone and Maxwell bridge
4. Which bridge is used for the measurement of capacitance and inductance?
5. List the applications of schering bridge
6. Mention the applications of Maxwell bridge
7. What is the need for time base generator?
8. List the different modules of horizontal deflection system
9. What is CRO?
10. What is the use of trigger circuit?
11. What are the different parts of CRO probe?
12. List the types of CRO probe

PART – B (3 Marks)

1. List the advantages of using bridges

2. Compare ac and dc bridges
3. Give examples for ac and dc bridges
4. Mention the applications of wheatstone bridge
5. State the applications of wein bridge
6. Draw the block diagram of CRO
7. List the applications of CRO
8. Draw the circuit diagram of active probe

PART – C (10 Marks)

1. Explain the operation of wheatstone bridge

2. Write short notes on schering bridge
3. Discuss in detail about the operation of Maxwell bridge
4. Explain how an unknown frequency can be determined using wein bridge
5. Explain RLC meter with neat sketch
6. With neat sketch discuss in detail about the block diagram of CRO
7. Explain the working of cathode ray tube with neat sketch
8. Write short notes on Horizontal and vertical deflection system
9. Explain about current and active probes in detail
10. Write short notes on passive and voltage probes

48
 UNIT – III

TEST INSTRUMENTS

3.1. DC Power Supply

A DC power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of

AC mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated DC power supply.

A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and voltage

regulating device. The output of ordinary power supply is fed to the voltage regulator
which produces the final output. The output voltage remains constant whether the load
current changes or there are fluctuations in the input AC voltage.

3.1.1. AC supply and transformer:

A power supply is used to provide the required amount of power at specific

voltage from a primary source which can be ac mains or a battery. A transformer
changes the ac mains (line) voltage to a required value. It is used to step the voltage up
or down. In a transistor radio it may be a step-down transformer and in a CRT it may be
a step-up transformer. Transformer provides isolation from the power line. It should be
used even when any change in voltage is not necessary.

49
3.1.2. Rectifier:

Full wave bridge rectifier circuit diagram

A rectifier converts ac into dc. It may be a half-wave rectifier, a full-wave rectifier

using a transformer with centre-tapped secondary winding or a bridge rectifier. But the
output of a rectifier may be fluctuating.

3.1.3. Filter:

LC filter
A filter circuit is used for smoothing out the ac variations from the rectified voltage.
There are four types of filters: 1) Capacitor filter, 2) Inductor filter, 3) L-C filter and 4) R-
C filter.

3.1.4. Voltage regulator:

A voltage regulator is necessary to maintain a constant output dc voltage by

providing line regulation and load regulation. A zener -regulator, transistorized regulator
or three terminal IC regulator can be used for this purpose. A switched mode power
supply (SMPS) is used to provide large load current with negligible power dissipation in
the series pass transistor.
50
IC Voltage Regulators

We can use integrated circuits (IC) to produce voltage regulators. One

advantage of IC voltage regulators is that properties like thermal compensation, short
circuit protection and surge protection can be built into the device. Most of the
commonly used IC voltage regulators are three-terminal devices.

The following Fig. shows the schematic symbol for a three-terminal IC voltage
regulator.

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators viz.

(i) Fixed positive voltage regulators
(ii) Fixed negative voltage regulators
(iii) Adjustable voltage regulators
(iv) Dual-tracking voltage regulators

Fixed voltage regulators

The fixed positive and fixed negative IC voltage regulators are designed to
provide specific output voltages. For example, LM 309 (fixed positive) provides a + 5V
DC output (as long as the regulator input voltages are within the specified ranges).

Variable Voltage regulators

The variable voltage regulator can be adjusted to provide any DC output voltage
that is within its two specified limits. The most popular three-terminal IC adjustable
voltage regulator is the LM 317. It has an input terminal, output terminal and an
adjustment terminal. An external voltage divider is used to change the DC output
voltage of the regulator. By changing R2, a wide range of output voltages can be
obtained.

51
 Adjustable voltage regulator is the LM 317. It has an input terminal, output
terminal and an adjustment terminal. An external voltage divider is used to change the
DC output voltage of the regulator. By changing R2, a wide range of output voltages
can be obtained.

The LM 317 is a three-terminal positive adjustable voltage regulator and can

supply 1.5 A of load current over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V.
The data sheet of an LM 317 gives the following formula for the output voltage :

This formula is valid from 1.25 V to 37V.

3.15. Block diagram of Fixed DC power supply

3.1.6 Block diagram of Variable DC power supply:

52
APPLICATIONS:

 Used to supply DC voltage for electronics circuits.

 Mobile Phone power adaptors
 Regulated power supplies in appliances
 Various amplifiers and oscillators

3.2 SIGNAL GENERATORS

3.2. INTRODUCTION

Signal Generator are u s e d a s very i m p o r t a n t electronic equipment in, the

research laboratories. It is used as a signal source for testing, ma int aini n g,
t r o u b l e shooting and development of electrical and electronic equipments. It is
used to provide a variety of waveforms, including sine wave, square wave, triangular
wave a n d a s well a s amplitude modulated waveforms.

The oscillator is the basic element of all signal sources and it provides only a
sinusoidal output signal, but Generator provides several types of waveforms. In
an oscillator, no energy is created, .it is simply converted from a DC source into
an AC energy at some specific frequency.

3.2. a). Definition:

The Signal Generator is a source of sine-wave voltage with an appreciable

range of frequency and amplitude, both of which are known to a high degree of
accuracy.

3.2. b) Applications of signal Generator

(a) Checking of gain and frequency re sp o n se , and

(b) Checking of alignment in receivers.

3.2. c) Requirements of a signal Generator: (characteristics)

a) Frequency of the signal should be known and stable.

b) Amplitude should vary from very small to relatively large values and
c) The signal should be distortion free
The above characteristics (or) requirements of a signal generator are varying

53
 for special signal generator such as function generators pulse and sweep generators.

3.2. d) Classification of signal Generator :

The signal Generators are classified as

A. Radio Frequency (RF) signal generators and
B. Audio Frequency (AF) signal generators

3.2. e) The Band limits and frequency range of AF and RF signal Generators:

Band limit Frequency range

Audio Frequency (AF) 20Hz to 20KHz

Radio Frequency (RF) > 30KHz
Very Low Frequency (VLF 15 to 100KHz
Low Frequency (LF) 100 to 500KHz
Broadcast Frequency 0.5 to 1.5 MHz
Video Frequency DC to 5MHz
High Frequency (HF) 1.5MHz to 30MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30MHz to 300M Hz
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300M Hz to 3000MHz
Microwave Frequency Above 3000 MHz

3.2.1. STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATOR

. Standard Signal Generator is a source of sine wave Voltage with an
appreciable range of frequency and amplitude both of which a r e known t o a, high
degree of accuracy.

Block diagram of standard signal Generator :

The basic block diagram of standard signal generator is shown in figure 3 . 2 . 1.

It consists of various parts. They are,

a. R F oscillator .
b. Modulation oscillator
c. output attenuator
d. External oscillator
e. Wide band amplifier
f. output level meter

54
 a) RF oscillator : A very stable R F oscillator i s used to generate t h e carrier
f r e q u e n c y using a n LC tank circuit, having a constant output over any
frequency range.

(b) Modulation oscillator : Modulation oscillator is the internal oscillator (fixed

f r e q u e n c y oscillator), which i s used to provide amplitude m o d u l a t i o n .

(c) Output A t t e n u a t o r : The o u t p u t Attenuator used to attenuate the signal

depends on the modulated carrier and it is made set.
(d) External oscillator : External oscillator is used to provide amplitude modulation,
externally which is a fixed frequency oscillator.

(e) Wide Band Amplifier: In wide B a n d Amplifier, the modulation is done.

This amplifier delivers its output that is modulation carrier to an attenuator.
(f)Output level meter : The output level meter is used to read the output
Voltage and the attenuator output setting.

3.2.1. ii) Principle of operation of standard signal Generator

The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable RF oscillator usin g an
LC tank circuit, having a constant output over any frequency range. The
frequency of oscillations is indicated by the frequency range control and the
venire dial setting. Amplitude M o d u l a t i o n (AM) is provided by an internal s i n e
wa v e g e n e ra t o r or from a n external oscillator.

55
 Modulation is done in the wide band amplifier circuit. This amplifier delivers
the output that is modulation carrier to an attenuator. The output voltage is read by
an output level meter.
Frequency stability is limited by the LC tank 'circuit and the instrument must
be given time to stabilize at the new resonant frequency. In high frequency
o s c i l l a t o r s , i s o la t i o n is necessary to avoid the effect on oscillator frequency,
amplitude and distortion characteristics.

3.2.1, iii) Applications of standard signal Generator:

(I) standard signal Generator is used as power source for the measurement of
gain, signal to noise ratio (SNR), Bandwidth, standing wave ratio(SWR) and
other properties

(ii) Extensively used in testing of radio receivers and transmitters.

3.2.3. HETERODYNE TYPE AUDIO GENERATOR:

Heterodyne Type Audio generator, is used for generating audio frequency
signals up to 20 KHz. Heterodyning principle (combination of two frequency outputs
from the different oscillators) is used in this type. This type of Audio generator is
also called as Beat-frequency oscillator (BFO)
3.2.3. i) Block diagram of Heterodyne Type Audio Generator:
The block diagram of heterodyne type audio generator is shown in
the figure 2.2. This audio generator consists of various parts. They are
a. Fixed frequency oscillator
b. Variable frequency oscillator
c. Mixer
d. AF amplifier

56
 (a) Fixed frequency oscillator: Fixed frequency oscillator, generates fixed
frequency and it is fed to the Mixer stage. It generates a frequency of 100KHz.

(b) Variable frequency oscillator: Variable frequency oscillator generates a

variable frequency range, ranges from 100 KHz to 120KHz. It is fed to the mixer stage.
.

c) Mixer: The Mixer stage gives the sum and difference output of its two input
frequencies. One is fixed frequency from the fixed frequency oscillator and
other one is variable frequency from the variable frequency o s c i l l a t o r .

(d) AF Amplifier : AF amplifier is the Audio frequency Amplifier which is used to

amplify the signal coming from the Mixer stage.

3.2.3. i) Principle of operation of Heterodyne type A u d i o Generator:

The voltages obtained from the two RF oscillators (fixed frequency
oscillator and variable frequency oscillator) operating at slightly different
frequencies are combined and applied to a mixer circuit. The Mixer gives the sum
and difference of frequencies as output, which is fed to a suitable filter to select
the desired signal.

57
 Thus if the fixed frequency oscillator generates a frequency 100KHz the
variable frequency oscillator generates a frequency range of 100KHz to120KHz.
Then the output frequency varies between 0 to 20KHz. The signal is amplified by an
AF amplifier. The output will be normally a sine wave with amplitude of 5V RMS in
400 ohms. .

3.2.3. iii) Advantages of .Heterodyne type Audio Generator

a) Accurately calibrated
b) Switching band is not required
c) Better output
d) Stable and accurate frequency output.

3.2.3 iv) Applications of Heterodyne type Audio Generator

a) Used for testing Radio transmitters
b) Used for TV Transmitters and Receivers

3.2.4. AUDIO SIGNAL GENERATOR

The Audio signal Generator has been designed extremely wide coverage
of low frequency signals, covers the audio frequency range between the limit of
20Hz with low distortion and high level output over the full range.

3.2.4.i) Block diagram of Audio signal Generator :

The block diagram of Audio signal Generator is shown figure. It consists of
a) Wien Bridge oscillator
b) Stabilizer
c) External oscillator
d) AF amplifier
e) Output attenuator
f) Negative feedback

58
 (a) Wien bridge oscillator: Wien Bridge oscillator is used to provide oscillations. It
produces clear sine waves. It is the heart of audio signal generator.

(b) Stabilizer: Stabilizer is used to provide stabilized output voltage. It provides

excellent regulation and stability with very low ripple.

(c) External oscillator: External oscillator is used to generate the required

oscillations in addition to the oscillations provided by Wien Bridge oscillator.

(d) AF Amplifier: The stabilized output voltage is amplified by using Audio

frequency (AF) Amplifier stages. The output of this AF Amplifier stage is
distorted and unstable.

(e) Output Attenuator: Attenuator used in the output, may be varied between
microvolt’s to volts range with an overall accuracy of ± 2db.

(f) Negative feedback network: The negative feedback network, is used for
stable frequency and stable output voltage level with negligible distortion.

3.2.4. ii) Principle of operation of Audio signal Generator

The Wien bridge oscillator produces a clear sine wave. The stabilizer is
provided to get stabilized output voltage. The output of stabilizer is given to audio
frequency amplifier stages, Where the audio signals are amplified. The output of
this amplifier stage is distorted and unstable. Hence a portion of the amplified
◦
output is fed back at 180 phase shift using the negative feedback network. This
negative feedback improves the stability and reduces distortion. The available

59
audio signal is taken as the output from the output attenuator.
3.2.4. iii) Advantages of Audio signals Generator :

a. Reduced Distortion and noise

b. increased stability
c. increased Bandwidth
d. more reliable and accurate
e. available in different waveforms
f. low cost

3.2.4. iv) Applications of Audio signal Generator :

a. used for testing radio receivers
b. used for TV transmitters and receivers

3.2.5. RF SIGNAL GENERATOR

In RF signal Generator, modulated RF signal is generated. The frequency
varies from 30KHz onwards. It provides a sinusoidal output voltage whose
frequency varies smoothly and continuously over and entire frequency band. It is
also called as sweep Generator.

3.2.5.i) Block diagram of RF signal Generator

The block diagram of RF signal generator is shown in the figure. This RF
signal generator consists of various parts. They are
a. Marker Generator
b. RF Master oscillator and Amplifier
c. Frequency sweeper
d. level control circuit
e. Attenuator

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 .
(a) Marker Generator': The Marker generator provides half sinusoidal waveform
at any frequency within the sweep range. It is used to identify the frequency
interval.

(b) 'RF Master oscillator and Amplifier: RF Master oscillator and Amplifier, is the
Heart of the RF signal Generator. It provides a number of frequency bands.

(c) Frequency sweeper: The frequency sweeper provides a variable modulating

voltage and makes the change in master oscillator. It provides varying sweep
voltage for synchronization.

(d) Level control circuit: Level control circuit, is automatic closed loop feedback
system, which monitors the RF level at some point in the measurement system.

(e) Attenuator: Attenuator is used to attenuate the amplified Signal and given to
the output.

3.2.5. Ii) Principle of operation of RF signal Generator

The frequency sweeper provides a variable modulating Voltage, which causes

the capacitance of the master oscillator to vary. A manual c o n t r o l a l l o w s
independent adjustment of the oscillator resonant f r e q u e n c y . The frequency
sweeper also provides a varying sweep voltage for synchronization to drive the
horizontal deflection plates of CRO.
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 To identify frequency in te r va l, marker generator is used. Marker Generator
provides half sinusoidal waveforms at any frequency within sweep range. The
marker voltage is added to sweep voltage.
The automatic level control circuit is a closed loop feedback system, which
monitors the RF level at some point in the measurement system. The level
control circuit holds the power delivered to the load constant and independent of
frequency and impedance changes.
The Amplified output voltage is then fed to the attenuator.
The Attenuator attenuates the signal and the RF output is obtained.

3.2.5. iii) Applications of RF signal Generator

(a) Used for alignment of RF and IF stages of TV receiver
(b) Used for testing RF and IF 'stages of TV receiver
(c) Used for measurement of gain and Bandwidth.

3.2.6. RF MARKER GENERATOR

RF Marker Generator is essentially an RF signal Generator in the VHF
and UHF bands, with much higher accuracy than the other signal Generators .
The drawback of the RF signal generator is, that it does not give any
precise information of the frequency on the traced curve. This drawback of RF
signal generator is rectified by using a separate RF generator called a "Marker
Generator".

3.2.6. i) Block diagram of RF Marker Generator:

The block diagram of RF Marker generator is shown in fig.2.5. It consists of
various parts. They are,
a. Sweep Generator
b. Marker generator
c. IF section of Receiver
d. Demodulator probe
e. Screen

62
(a) Sweep Generator: Sweep generator i s a RF signal generator. It is one of
the generators, used to provide RF output for heterodyning.

(b) Marker Generator: Marker generator is also a type of RF signal generator,

which generates RF signal output and fed for the heterodyning process. The
output of this marker generator is set at the desired frequency within the
pass-band of the circuit under test.

(c) If section of the Received In this Intermediate Frequency (IF) section, the two
RF outputs from the sweep generator and marker generator are mixed
(heterodyned) to produ c e the sum and difference of the frequencies.

(d) Demodulator Probe: Demodulator probe (or) the vide detector, is used to
detect the IF frequency of the receive and fed to the vertical and sweep
section of the screen.

(e) Screen.' The screen is provided by the detected voltage and displays the low
frequency output of the detector.

63
 3.2.6. ii) Principle of operation of RF Marker Generator
The output from the sweep generator and the marker generator are mixed
together, to produce outputs at the sum and d i f f e r e n c e of two frequencies.
These frequencies appear at the detector output.
When no difference frequency is produced, no vertical deflection is produced
on the screen. As the frequency approaches and just crosses the marker
frequency, a curve on the screen along the trace is generated by the low
frequency output of the detector. To get a sharp curve, a suit- able capacitor is
shunted across the vertical input terminals of the GRO.
The Marker generator is provided with dial controlled frequency. It has the
provision to generate crystal controlled fixed frequency o u t p u t at several
important frequencies.

[Link]) Applications of RF Marker Generator

a) used to identify the frequencies on the sweep frequency scale.,
b) used for alignment of receivers.
(c) used for more accurate calibration of sweeps

3.2.7. i) FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function Generator is an instrument, that delivers different waveforms of

adjustable frequency over a wide range. The most common output waveforms are
the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth waves, whose frequencies may be
adjusted from a fraction of a Hertz to several Hundreds of Kilo Hertz.
The special features and the capabilities of the function generators are
(a) Various outputs are available at the same time
(b) It can be phase locked to an external source
(c) One function generator may be used to phase lock a second function
generator and the two output signals can be displaced in phase, by an
adjustable amount.
(e) By adjusting the phase and amplitude of the harmonics, almost any
waveform may be generated.

64
3.2.7. i) Block diagram of function Generator
The block diagram of function generator is shown in the figure. It consists
of various parts. They are
(a) Frequency control network
(b) Upper constant current source
(c) Lower constant current source
(d) Integrator
(e) Voltage comparator multivibrator
(f) Resistance-diode shaping circuit
(g) Amplifiers

(a) Frequency control network : Frequency control network is used to control

the frequency, by varying the magnitude of Current which is used to drive the
integrator.

(b) Upper constant current source : The upper constant current source,
supplies current to the integrator, whose output voltage changes linearly with
time.

(c) Lower constant current source: The lower constant current source,
supplies a reverse current to the integrator, to decrease the integrator output.

(d) Integrator: The Integrator output varies linearly with time according to the
Formula Eout = -1/c ∫ i dt

65
(e) Voltage comparator Multivibrator: The voltage comparator multivibrator,
changes its states at a pre-determined maximum level of the integrator output
voltage.

(f) Resistance-diode shaping circuit : The Resistance diode shaping circuit, changes
the slope of the triangular wave and produces a Sine wave.

(g) Amplifier: Amplifier is used to amplify the signals coming out from the voltage
comparator Multivibrator and Resistance diode shaping circuit. There are Amplifiers,
for each output.

3.2.7. ii) Principle of operation of Function Generator:

The frequency is controlled by varying the magnitude of current, which drives
the integrator. This function gene rater produces, sine, square and triangular
waveforms with a frequency ranging from 0.01 Hertz to 100KiloHertz.
The frequency controlled network, regulates two current sources. The
upper current source supplies constant current to the integrator, whose output
voltage increases linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the current
increase or decreases, the slope of the output voltage and hence the frequency is
controlled.
The voltage comparator Multivbrator, changes the states at a pre-determined
maximum level of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the
upper current supply and made it to switch on the lower current supply. The
lower current supply, supplies reverse current to the integrator, so that its output
decreases linearly with time.
The output of the integrator is a triangular waveform. The comparator output
delivers a square wave voltage of same frequency, The resistance - diode
network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and
produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion. The amplifier in the output,
amplifies the signal.

66
3.2.7. iii) Applications of function Generator
1) The different waveforms generated are used in Labs
2) Used to analyze the performance of characteristics of networks.
3) Used to generate several harmonic frequencies by phase locked loop systems
4) Unknown wave forms can be compared.

3.2.8. FUNCTION GENERATOR USING IC 8038

The Basic principle of the function generator, is linear charging and
discharging of a capacitor in the integrator circuit. This generator produces
triangular waveform, from which the square and sine waveforms are generated.
The IC 8038 is used to generate the various waveforms. The features of
IC8038, are
(a) It has low distortion
(b) It requires very few external components
(c) It can provide sine, square and triangular waves simultaneously.
(d) It has low frequency drift with temperature.

The pin details of the IC 8038 are shown in fig.2.7. It is of 14 pin DIP IC.

67
 3.2.8 Functional Block diagram of IC 8038

The figure 1 shows the functional block diagram of IC8038. The figure 2 shows
the relationship between the various waveforms, which are generated by IC8038.
The figure 3 shows the external connections of IC8038 to generate various
waveforms

[Link]) Principle of operation of Function Generator using IC8038

The two current sources, charges and discharges the capacitor alternatively.
When the current source (1) is high (i.e. above reference level) comparator - I output
will be high (logic-1). Now SR flip flop is in set condition (i.e. s=1, R=O Then the
output of flip flop is '1'. i.e Q=1 when the current source(2) switched ON, it will

68
discharge the capacitor of the same rate.
When the triangular wave level is below the negative reference level, the
comparator (2) output becomes high Now the flip-flop is reset, i.e., s=O, R=1,
therefore Q=O. This makes the current source(2) switched out and the current
source begins to charge up the capacitor again. The voltage developed across
the capacitor is given to buffer stage.. It is then' given to sine converter stage. The
output of the flip-flop is buffered and so it becomes the square wave.

3.3. MEGGER:
Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time,
environment condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture and dust particles. It also
get impacted negatively due to the presence of electrical and mechanical stress, so
it’s become very necessary to check the IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a
constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal or electrical shock.

[Link] of Megger
This can be separated into mainly two categories:-
1. Electronic Type (Battery Operated)
2. Manual Type (Hand Operated)

Advantages of Electronic Type Megger

1. Level of accuracy is very high.
2. IR value is digital type, easy to read.
3. One person can operate very easily.
4. Works perfectly even at very congested space.
5. Very handy and safe to use.

Disadvantages of Electronic Type Megger

1. Require an external source of energy to energies i.e. Dry cell.
2. Costlier in market.

69
 Hand Operated Megger
Advantages of Hand Operated Megger
1. Still keeps important in such high-tech world as it’s an oldest method for IR value
determination.
2. No external source required to operate.
3. Cheaper available in market.

Disadvantages of Hand Operated Megger

1. At least 2 persons required to operate i.e. one for rotation of crank other to connect
megger with electrical system to be tested.
2. Accuracy is not up to the level as it’s varies with rotation of crank.
3. Require very stable placement for operation which is a little hard to find at working
sites.
4. Unstable placement of tester may impact the result of tester.
5. Provides an analog display result.
6. Require very high care and safety during use of the same.

3.3.2. With a neat sketch explain the Construction and working principle of a
Meggar.

70
Meggar is an instrument used for measuring insulation resistance.
1. The Moving system consists of two coil called control coil and deflecting
coil.
2. These are fixed at an angle of 90 degree
3. The compensating coil in series with a control coil and protection
resistance is connected across a generator.
4. The coils move in the air gap of permanent magnet.
5. Control coil is in series with CCR.
6. Deflecting coil is in series with DCR and the resistance under test.
7. The guard rings by passes the leakage current.

Working:
1. The unknown resistance is connected between the terminal L&E.
2. The generator handle is turned at uniform speed.
3. When the resistance value is small, the current through the deflecting coil is high, so
deflecting torque is also high.
4. Hence the pointer will move to clockwise and shows ‘0’ or very low resistance
5. When the resistance is high, the current through the deflecting coil is low
6. The pointer will move to the anti clock wise direction (ie) infinity

Application of megger:

1. The device enable us to measure electrical leakage in wire

2. Megger is used for verifying the electrical insulation level of any device such as
motor, cable, generator winding etc.

3.4. Constructional details of Current Transformer and Potential Transformer.

3.4.1. Current Transformer
The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is
designed to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is
proportional to the current being measured in its primary.

Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and
provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an
AC transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic
current transformer is slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer.
71
3.4.2. Block diagram of Current Transformer

There are three basic types of current transformers: wound, toroidal and bar.
Three main part of current transformer:
[Link]
[Link]
3. Insulation

a. Core:
There are three forms of cores
i) Rectangle form
ii) Shell form
iii) Ring form

(i) Rectangle form:

It is built up of ‘L’ Shaped punching suitable for high voltage winding are placed
on the shorter limb.
(ii)Shell form:
Windings are placed in the central limb difficult to build up
(iii) Ring form:
It provides joint fewer cores suitable for large current. Winding is uniformly
distributed around the ring .metal cores are commonly used now.
b. Winding:
The primary winding consists of one or more turns connected in the series with
the circuit. The secondary winding has more turns than primary winding and directly
connected to the instrument.

72
c. Insulation:
The primary and secondary winding are separately wound. They are insulated by
tape and varnish for low voltage.
Oil immersion or compound filling is done for high voltages.
Porcelain tubes are as used insulation in high voltage.

3.4.3. Working of CT:

= = =

Primary winding carries the load current (I1) secondary current is less.

3.5. Potential Transformer:

Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power

system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low
ratings meters and relays. Commercially available relays and meters used for
protection and metering, are designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of

3.5.1. Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer

A voltage transformer theory or potential transformer is just like a general
purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is connected across the
phase and ground. Just like the transformer used for stepping down purpose, potential
transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.
73
The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that
transformer, and then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary
terminals of the PT.

3.5.2. Block diagram of Potential Transformer:

Potential transformer is used for measurement of high voltage by means of low

range voltmeter. The potential transformer is a step down transformer. The meter is
connected to the low voltage secondary winding.

Core:
Core may be of shell type, shell type is normally used for low voltage. metal and
silicon steel are used for making the core.

Winding:
Primary winding consist of more number of turns. It is connected across the circuit.
The secondary winding consists of few turns. It is shorted through a Voltmeter.

74
Insulation :
Cotton type and varnished camphor used as insulation for coil constructions

3.5.3. Working of PT:

Primary winding is connected across the line.
= = =

The normal secondary voltage rating is 110v.

3.6. Recorder :
Recorder is a measuring instrument that records electrical and non-electrical
quantities as a function of time.

3.6.1. Types of recorders :

[Link] recorder
[Link] recorder

Analog recorder is classified into

 X-Y recorder.
 Strip-Chart recorder.

3.6.2. XY RECORDER

75
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF XY RECORDER:
In XY recorder one circuit moves in X direction and another circuit moves in Y
direction.

CONSTRUCTION:
Various blocks of XY recorder are
1. Attenuator
2. Balance circuit.
3. Chopper.
4. Amplifier
5. Servo motor.
Attenuator:
Two inputs (XY) are attenuated to the range of the recorder.
Balance circuit:
In balance circuit attenuated error signal is compared with the reference signal.
Chopper:
The error signal is given to the chopper. Chopper converts DC error signal to AC
Amplifier:
AC error signal is amplified here.
Servo motor:
Servomotor is used to move the pen in proper direction.

OPERATION:
X-Y inputs are given to attenuator.
 Attenuator reduces the input signal to the range of recorders.
 Then the attenuated signal is compared in the balanced circuit.
 The error signal from balanced circuit is given to the chopper.
 The DC error signal is converted into AC by Chopper.
 Since the AC error signal is low it is amplified by amplifier to drive two
servomotors.
 One Servomotor drives the pen and the other moves the arm.
 Pen and arm moves over the fixed graph paper.
 Hence a record of one physical quantity with respect to another physical quantity
is obtained.
76
ADVANTAGES:
1. Even a complicated curve can be drawn.
2. Related electrical or non electrical quantities can be recorded.

APLLICATION OF XY RECORDER:
1. To draw VI characteristics of Zener diode, transistor, Vacuum tubes.
2. To plot Stress-Strain curves.
3. To draw regulation curves of power Supply.
4. To draw Speed –Toque characteristics of Motor.

3.6. 3. STRIP CHART RECODER:

Construction:
 Strip chart recorder is a recorder which records the data on a moving chart
paper.
 It is also called XT recorder.
 A Strip chart recorder consists of a long role of graph paper.
 This graph paper moves at constant Speed .
 There is a stylus pen to make marks on moving graph paper.
 The stylus moves horizontally and also depend upon the quantity to be
recorded.
 A Pointer is attached to the Stylus which moves over a scale.
 Pointer shows the value of quantity to be recorded.
 It consists of speed selector switch and range selector switch.
77
Operation:
 A paper driving system moves the chart paper at constant speed.
 According to the quantity to be recorded, the stylus moves over the chart.
 Stylus draws a graph and the pointer moves over the scale.
 When there is no signal applied to Stylus pen, it is stationary.
 At this time the paper moves and a straight line will be marked on the paper.
 When the input is given, the pen moves over the chart paper according to the
variation of input signal.

APPLICATION:
1. Heat treatment furnaces.
2. Sugar processing plants.
3. Water and waste water treatment.
4. Textile and dye processes.
5. Tire and Rubber processing
6. Diary pasteurization plants
7. Pharmaceuticals.

3.6.4. COMPARE STRIP CHAT AND XY RECORDER:

STRIP CHART RECORDER XY RECORDER

 It is an XT recorder.  It is an XY recorder.
 It records variation of quantity with  It gives graphic record between
respect to time. two quantities.
 Sensitivity – 0.4 V/mm.  Sensitivity - 10 V/mm.
 Self balancing potentiometer  Two potentiometer is used.

78
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

PART – A (2 Marks)

1. What is DC power supply?

2. List out the application of variable dc power supply.
3. What is the definition of signal generator?
4. What is RF generator used for?
5. Mention types of Megger.
6. Define and Potential Transformer.
7. What is the use of current transformer?
8. Writ the application of Strip chart recorder.

PART – B (3 Marks)
1. What is difference of fixed and variable dc power supply?
2. Write the application of Audio generator.
3. Write short notes on megger.
4. What is the difference between current transformer and Potential Transformer.
5. What are the advantages of X-Y recorder?
6. Compare Strip chart and X-Y recorder

PART – C (10 Marks)

1. Explain each block of the variable DC power supply with neat diagram
2. Discuss the Audio Generator working principle with neat diagram.
3. Explain the working principle of Hetrodyne type audio generator with neat
block diagram
4. With a neat sketch explain the Construction and working principle of a
Meggar.
5. Explain the constructional details of Current Transformer
6. Illustrate the working of X-Y recorder with relevant diagram.

79
 UNIT - IV

Digital Instruments

4.1 Introduction:
Analog instruments are used to measure various quantities like current
voltage power continuously. Digital instruments are used to measure various
quantities like analog instruments, but the output will be displayed in numbers.

Digital VS Analog
[Link] Analog Digital
1. Low precision High precision
2. More flexibility Limited flexibility
3. Not convenient for read out Very convenient for
read out
4. Errors due to friction. tension may come No such errors
5. Parallax error in read out No such error
6. Continuous and simple output Numerical output
7. Frequency response is good Frequency response
is very good
8. Not compatible for direct connection with PC, Compatible with PC,
MC. MC,PC.

80
4.2 Digital Voltmeters [DVM] :

DVM is nothing but Digital Volt meter. Digital voltmeters are the measuring
instruments which convert analog voltage signals into a digital readout. The digital
output is displayed on the front panel.

DVM can also measure analog dc voltage. We can measure ac voltage,

resistance dc, ac current, temperature and pressure using proper signal conditioners
before giving then input to DVM. The DVM displays ac & dc voltages as discrete
numbers.

DVM’s are classified in the following ways by

1. Number of digits.
2. Number of Measurements.
3. Accuracy.
4. Speed of reading.
5. Digital output of various types.

Characteristics of DVM’s:
1. Accuracy is + 0.005% of the total reading.
2. Resolution is 1 part in million.
3. Input resistance is 10 M , capacitance is 40 .
4. Input range is from +1.000 v ton +1000 v with automatic ranges
selection.

4.2.1 Integrated Type DVM:

The principle of this type of DVM is the output frequency is proportional to the
input voltage. A constant output voltage is integrated and the slope of output is
proportional to the input voltage. When the output reaches to a particular value it is
discharged to zero and another cycle begins.

Block Diagram of integrating type DVM

81
Working:

The input voltage produces a charging current which charges the capacitor ‘C’
to the reference voltage [Link] er is reached the comparator charges its state to trigger
the precision pulse generator.
The pulse generator produces a pulse which rapidly discharges the capacitor.
The charging rate and discharging produces a signal frequency which is directly
proportional to ei.

Waveform

The voltage to frequency conversion is of dual slope type.

If er, t2 are constants, Let K2 = er.t2

ei = = [ ]

The output frequency is proportional to the input voltage ei.

4.2.2. Ramp type DVM:

Principle:
Based on the time taken by a linear ramp to charge the input level to ground
level or vice-versa.

Voltage to time conversion

82
 The ramp can be either positive or negative. The ramp voltage is initiated to
start the measurement. The ramp voltage is compared with the voltage which is
measured.

When two voltages are equal a coincidence circuit generates a pulse to open
a gate. The ramp continues to go until the second comparator senses the ramp has
reached zero. The ground comparator compares the ramp with ground.

When the ramp reaches zero the ground comparator generates stop pulse,
and closes the gate. In between the time interval of start and stop pulse the gate
opens the oscillator circuit which drives the counter.

The count magnitude indicates the input voltage magnitude which is displayed
by the read out. The voltage is converted into time and its count represents the
voltage magnitude.\

Block diagram of ramp DVM

Advantages:
1. Easy to design.
2. Operating cost is low.

Disadvantages:
1. Errors are maximum.
2. Noise is also more.

83
4.2.3 Successive approximation DVM:
Principle:
The values are approximated successively until we reach a near perfect value.

Fig. 5.10 Successive approximation DVM

The start pulse activates the control circuit to clear successive approximation
register (SAR). If the output of SAR is 00000000, Volt of the D/A converter is zero. If
VIN > VOUT comparator output is positive and VIN < VOUT the comparator output is
negative. During the first clock pulse the control circuit sets D7 as 1 and volt reaches
50% of reference voltage the SAR output is 10000000. If volt is greater than VIN, the
comparator output is zero and the control circuit resets D7. If VIN > VOUT,
comparator output is positive and the control circuit keep D7 set. Similarly the rest of
the bits begins from D7 to D0 are set and started.

At starting a start pulse is applied to start / stop multi vibrator. This sets the
MSB of control register as I and others are zero. The value will be 10000000. The
output of D/A is ½ V. This output is compared to the unknown input by the
comparator output is high. The control register retains the 1.

84
 The ring counter advances one count by shifting 1 to second MSB and output
becomes 11000000. The process continues until the ring counter reaches its final
count. Then the measurement cycle stops and the digital output of the control
register represents the final approximation of the unknown input voltage.

4.3 Digital Multimeter :

Digital Multimeter has high input impedance with high accuracy. They are
small in size.

Block diagram of a basic digital multimeter

A basic digital multimeter is made up of many A/D converters with attenuation

circuits. The current to be measured is applied to summing junction at input of
operational amplifier. The current at input is zero because of high input impedance.

The current IR nearly equal to Ii causing a voltage drop across the resisters.
The voltage drop is the input to A/D converter, which gives a reading value
proportional to unknown current.
To measure a resistance a known current from a constant current source is
passed to that resistor. The voltage drop across the resistor is applied to the A/D
converter. The A/D converter indicates the value of unknown resistance.
Digital Meters have the capabilities of displaying half digits. A full digit display
displays all numbers from 0 to 9.A half digit display displays only the number [Link]
half digit is always the first digit shown.
A 3.5 digit display has four segments with 3 full digits and one half [Link] will
read maximum of [Link] example if we like to display 10 KV on 3.5 digit meter we
85
use the leading half digit. We have four digits resolution. Placing the decimal point
properly the reading would be [Link] will be displayed in front panel overlay.
A 4.5 digit display has 5 segments. 4 full digits with one half digit. Maximum
display capability is [Link] we like to display 10 KV on 4.5 digit meter we use the
leading half digit. We use five digit resolutions. The final reading is [Link] is
displayed on front panel overlay.

Current to voltage converter.

4.3.1 Auto Ranging :

The aim of automatic ranging is to get optimum resolution in all
circumstances. The instrument will be switched to more sensitive range to measure
all type of values from very minimum to maximum.

The range of the instrument is automatically switched over to the appropriate

range for near perfect measurements.

4.3.2 Auto Zeroing :

Automatic zeroing eases the operation of an instrument. After a measurement
is made successfully the instrument comes back to zero zeroing offers optimum
accuracy for low valued reading.
4.3.3 Auto Polarity :
The polarity indication is obtained from analog to digital converter. The
polarity is measured at the end of the integration period. The output of the integrator
sets the polarity of the flip-flop. The output made at last will be there in the memory
until a new measurement is made.

4.4.4 Digital Frequency Meter:

This type of mater is effectively used to measure the frequency and displays
86
the measured frequency.

Principle of Operation:

The signal is converted into trigger pulses and applied to an AND gate
Continuously. If pulse of I’s is applied to other terminal and the number of pulses are
counted for this period. The count indicates the frequency.

Principle of Frequency measurement

4.4.1 The Block Diagram of Digital Frequency Meter

Basic circuit of digital frequency meter

The unknown frequency signal is amplified before applying to Schmitt trigger.

The Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into a square wave, as train of pulse.

The Schmitt trigger’s output is given to Start / Stop gate. When the gate is
enabled the input pulses pass through this gate and directly fed to electronic counter.
The counter counts the number of pulses.

When the gate is disabled the counter stops counting the incoming pulses.
The counter displays the number of pulses which are passed through the
START/STOP time unknown frequency.

87
4.4.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR DIGITAL FREQUENCY COUNTER

The basic circuit diagram for frequency measurement is shown below.

The basic circuit for measurement of frequency

The unknown frequency is applied to the Schmitt trigger produces positive

pulses at the output. The pulses are present at point A of the main gate. The positive
pulses from time base sector are present at point B of the START and STOP gates.

Initially the flip-flop 1 (F/Ff1) o is at logic 1 state. The voltage from Y is applied

at point A of stop gate and enables the gate. The logic (zero stage at of F/F 1 is

applied to input A of the START gate disables the gate.

The stop gate is enabled, the positive pulses from stop gate sets (S) input of
the F/F-2 and sets that F/F-2.

The output 0 from of F/F-2 is application terminal B of the main gate. No

pulses can pass through the main gate.

To start the Operation Positive pulse is applied to reset input of F/F-1, =1,

Y=0, STOP get is disabled and START gate is enabled. The same read pulse is
applied to reset the input of all decade counters. The counters are set to Zero and
the counting can start.

When next pulse arrives it passes through START gate to reset F/F-2, then

F/F-2 output charges to 1 from Zero. changes from 0 to 1. signal is the gating

signal, applied to input B of main gate and enables the gate.

88
 The pulses from unknown frequency source passes through the main gate of
the counter which starts to count. The pulse from START gate is applied to F/F-1
changes its state from 0 to 1. This disables the START gate and enables the STOP
gate. The unknown frequency will pars through main gate until it is enabled.

The next pulse from time base selector passes through the enabled STOP
gate and set the input terminal of F/F-2 changer the output back to 1, and Y=0 So
the main gate is disabled, and disconnects the unknown frequency signal from the
counter.

The counter counts the number of pulses occurring between two successive
pulses. If the time interval between two successive pulses is 1 second, the number
of pulses counted in this interval of unknown frequency source is in Hz.

4.5 Digital Tachometer :

Digital Tachometer is used to measure the speed of a rotating shaft. This is

similar to the Principle of Digital frequency counter.

Basic block diagram of a digital tachometer

Let us take the rpm of rotating shaft is R. P is the number of pulses produced
from one revolution of the shaft.

In one minute the number of pulses picked up is RXP. Frequency is RXP/60

(Number of Pulses/Second). T is the gate period means the pulse counted is
(RXPXT)/60. The counter counts R pules. (ie)

89
 The rpm of the shaft is read directly. If we fix gate period T as one
second (T=IS) The revolution pickup will produce 60 pulses per revolution.

4.6 Digital Panel Meters

Digital Panel Meters are mounted is Industrial Control Panel to measure

Physical quantities like temperature, Pressure, Voltage, current power and speed.
These meters take an electrical signal which is proportional to the measured physical
quantity. The value will be displayed.

The digital panel meters are linear and more accurate. The They use LED or
LCD display. An ASIC is nothing but Application Specific Integrated Circuit.

Block diagram

Digital
Signal LCD
Panel
Conditioning Display
Meter
Circuit
ASIC

Calibration
Circuit

ASIC based digital panel meters

Application specific ICS and Application specific products for digital panel
meters integrate the ADC' S and the display driver in a single device.

The Signal conditioning circuit varies based on the range and physical
quantity.

4.7. Digital Storage O Oscilloscope (DSO)

Digital Storage Oscilloscope is an instrument which is used to measure the

various types of signals and displays to the signal parameters in Digital format. This
is available in two types 1) Processing 2) Non Processing .

90
 The processing type has built in computing capability which given all data in
digital format. The non processing digital scopes are used as storage and non
storage types.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope.

The analog voltage input is digitized in a 10 bit A/D converter. The memory
storage capacity is 4096 for single channel and 2048 for two channels, and 1024 for
four channels.

The analog input voltage is sampled at variable rates and stored into the
memory. After the sampled record is captured in memory we can do various
manipulations in that. The digital memory can be read directly. Pre triggering
recording allow the input signal before the trigger points to be recorded. The DSO
records continuously, until the trigger signal is received. An adjustable trigger delay
allows the Operator control of stop point. The trigger may occur near the beginning,
middle or the end of stored information.

91
Advantages

1) Storage Capability is high

2) We can change the voltage and time scale display after the recording.
3) 0.25% resolution is possible with 0.1% accuracy.

4.8 Mixed Storage Oscilloscope (MSO):-

This has two kinds of inputs.

1) Small number of analog channels

2)Large number of digital channels

The measurements are acquired with a single time base and can be viewed
on single display.

The mixed storage Oscilloscope works like a Digital Storage Oscilloscope with
some measuring capabilities of a logic analyzer. They are used is analog to Digital
converter, Digital to analog converter, Control Systems debugging.

The input to MSO is either analog or digital. The MSO has Horizontal System,
vertical amplifier, acquisition system and display system with control processing.

Advantages:-

1) Digital or analog signals can be used

2) High flexibility
3) Easy read out.

92
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

PART – A (2 Marks)

1) Write short notes on Digital Instrument

2) Write short notes on Digital Voltmeter
3) Mention the types of Digital Voltmeter
4) Write short notes on Digital Multimeter
5) What is auto ranging?
6) What is auto Zeroing?
7) What is auto polarity?
8) What is digital frequency meter?
9) Write short notes on digital Tachometer?
10) What is digital panel meter?
11) What is digital storage Oscilloscope?\
12) What is mixed storage Oscilloscope?

PART – B (3 Marks)

1) Compare analog & Digital Instruments

2) Mention the merits of digital Instruments
3) Draw the block diagram of digital frequency meter
4) What is digital Tachometer? Mention its advantages
5) Compare Digital Storage Oscilloscope with analog Oscilloscope
6) What is mixed storage Oscilloscope? Mention its advantages

PART – C (10 Marks)

1) Explain Integrated type Digital Voltmeter with neat diagram
2) Explain Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter with neat diagram
3) Explain successive approximation Digital Voltmeter with neat diagram
4) Explain Digital multi meter with a neat diagram
5) Explain Digital frequency meter with a neat back diagram
6) Explain Digital Tachometer with a neat diagram
7) Explain Digital Panel meter with a neat diagram
8) Explain Digital Storage Oscilloscope with a neat diagram
9) Explain Mixed Storage Oscilloscope with a neat diagram
93
 UNIT - V

OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

5.1. INTRODUCTION

An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a special type of high gain amplifier

which consists of one or more cascaded differential amplifier [Link] general IC
741 is used as an operational amplifier.

Characteristics of Op-Amp:

[Link] Voltage Gain

[Link] Input Resistance

[Link] Output Resistance

[Link] bandwidth

[Link] Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

[Link] Slew rate

Applications of Op-Amp:

[Link] be used as an Instrumentation Amplifier

[Link] Amplifier

[Link] Amplifier

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

A Signal generator produces a time dependent voltage or current wave form

of prescribed characteristics such as frequency, amplitude, Shape and duty cycle. A
voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is a special signal generators whose frequency is
externally controlled.
There are two categories of signal generators
1. Tuned Oscillators
2. Relaxation Oscillator

94
 Tuned Oscillator Produces Sinusoidal oscillations for this purpose either use
is made of feedback amplifier using LC tuned circuit or RC phase shift network in the
feedback loop.
Relaxation Oscillators employ bistable devices such as switches. Schmitt
triggers, logic gates and flip flop to repeatedly charge and discharge a capacitor.
Typically wave forms obtainable with this method are Ramp, Triangular, Square Saw
tooth and pulses wave.
5.2 Ramp Type generators:
5.2.1 Ramp generator using op-amp

The op-amp is wired as a voltage follower, with D1 & D2 clamping the input to
one diode drop above or below the output. When the input step-changes by a volt or
more, the diodes will keep the voltage across R2 at a nearly constant 0.3V (because
the output will follow any change on C), creating a constant slew rate at the output of
0.3V/R2C1 V/s. The output will slew to within 0.3V of the input and then follow an RC
((R1+R2)C1) curve until reaching a final value equal to Vin. For best results, R2
should be larger than R1, preferably by factor of ten or more. This simple circuit gives
best results with fairly large steps, where the slow settling time won't be objectionable.
5.2.2 Ramp generator using VCO 566
There are two types of Ramp generators one is positive ramp and negative
ramp using VCO 566.
Typical connection diagram for 566 device in this fig 5.1

External connection for 566 VCO

95
 In this arrangement, the RC Combination determines the free running
frequency and the control voltage Vc at terminal 5 is set by the voltage dinder R1,
R2.

The modulating Signal is a c coupled with the capacitor C1 and must be less
than 3 V.

The f0 can be varied over a 10:1 range as described above. The maximum
output frequency is 1 MHz. A small capacitor, C2of 0.001 Micro farad is connected
between pin 5 and pin 6 to eliminate possible oscillations in the control current
source.

The amplitude of the output waveform is dependent upon supply voltage

VCC. Which can be varied in the range of 10 to 24V. The square wave output is
taken from pin 3 and ramp output pin 4.

Positive ramp generator.

Positive ramp generation using IC 566

96
Negative Ramp generation

Negative Ramp generation using IC 566

The 566 VCO can be conveniently used produce ramp output. This can be
done by connecting external transistor. The transistor Fig 5.3 is used to discharge
and charge rapidly the timing capacitor. This mechanism Transforms the triangular
output available at pin 4 into a positive or negative going ramp. This circuit
modification necessary for positive going ramp is shown in fig 5.2 Note that the
square wave output at pin 3, 4 changed to a positive going pulse. A circuit which is
modified to produce negative going ramp and negative going pulse is shown fig
above.

5.3 Triangular wave generator:

The output waveform of the integrator is triangular if its input is a square

wave. This means that a triangular wave generator can be formed by simply
connecting an integrator to the square wave generator of given fig.

This circuit requires of dual op-amp, two capacitors, and at least five resistors.
The frequencies of the square wave and triangular wave are the same. For fixed R1,
R2, and C values, the frequency of the square wave as well as triangular wave
depends on the resistance R. The resistor R is increased or decreased, the
frequency of the triangular wave will decrease or increase. respectively Although the
amplitude of the square wave is constant ( +V sat); the Amplitude of the triangular
wave decrease with an increase in its frequency and vice versa.

97
 The input of integrator A2 is square wave, while its output is a triangular wave,
However, for the ouput of A2 to be triangular wave requires that 5 R3 C2 > T/2. Where
T is the period of the square wave input. As a general Rule, R3C2 should be equal to
T.

Triangular wave generator.

Output Wave form

98
 To obtain a stable triangular wave, it may also be necessary to shunt the
capacitor C2 with resistance R4 and connect an offset voltage. Compensating
network at the non inverting terminal of A2. As with any other oscillator, the frequency
of the triangular wave generator is limited by the slew rate of the op-amp. Therefore
high-slow rate op-amp such as LM301 should be used for the generation of higher
frequencies.

The frequency of oscillation can be given as

1 R3
fo = =
T 4R1C1 R2

5.4 Square wave generator:

In square wave outputs are generated when the op-amp is forced to operate
in the saturated region. That is, the output of the op-amp is forced to swing
respectively. between positive saturation + V sat ( ~+ VCC) and negative saturation
-Vsat (~VEE). This square wave generator is also called a free running or astable
multi vibrator.

Square wave generator Output Wave form

99
 Assume that the voltage across capacitor C is zero volts at the instant the dc
supply voltages +VCC and -VEE are applied. This means that the voltage at the
inverting terminal is zero initially. At the same instant, however, the voltage V 1 at the
non-inverting terminal is a very small finite value that is a function of the output offset
voltage Vout and the value of R1 and R2 resistors. Thus the differential input voltage
Vid is equal to the voltage V1 at the non inverting terminal. Although very small,
voltage VI will start to drive the op-amp into saturation. Since initially the capacitor C
acts a short circuit, the gain of the OP-amp is very large. Hence V1 drives the output
of the OP-amp to its positive saturation +Vsat. With the output voltage of the OP-Amp
at +Vsat. The Capacitor C starts charging toward +Vsat through Resistor [Link]
the voltage V2 across capacitor C is slightly more positive than V 1. the output of the
OP-Amp is forced to switch to a negative saturation. -Vsat. with the OP-Amp’s output
voltage at negative saturation -Vsat. The voltage V1 across R1 is also negative. Since

R1
V1 = (-Vsat)
R1 + R2

Thus the net differential voltage Vid = V1-V2 is negative the output of the OP-Amp in
negative saturation. The output remains in negative saturation until the capacitor C
discharges and then recharges to a negative voltage slightly higher than -V 1. The
capacitor’s voltage V2 becomes more negative than - V1, the net differential voltage
Vid becomes positive and hence drives the output of the OP-amp back to its positive
saturation +Vsat. This complete one cycle with output at +Vsat, Voltage V 1 at the
non-inverting input is

R1
V1 = (+ Vsat)
R1 + R2

The time period T of the output waveform is given by

2R1 + R2
T = 2 Rc In
R2

100
5.5 Differential Amplifier:
The Subtraction of two input voltages is possible with the help of OP-Amp
circuit called subtractor on difference amplifier circuit. This type of amplifier is very
useful in instrumentation circuit. A typical circuit is shown in fig below. Since the
differential voltage at the input terminals of the OP-Amp is zero. Mode A and B are at
the same potential, designated as V3 the nodal equation at A

Differential
Amplifier

Node ‘A’ V3 - V1 + V3 - Vo
R1 R2 = O (1)

Node ‘B’ V3 - V2 + V3
R1 R2 = O (2)

Rearranging We get

1 1 V2 V0
------ + ------ V3 - ------- - ------ = 0 (3)
R1 R2 R1 R2

1 1 V1
+ V3 - = O (4)
R1 R2 R1

101
Subtracting equation (4) and (3)

1 VO
(V1 - V2) =
R1 R2

VO
VO = (V1 - V2)
R2

5.6 INSTUMENTATION AMPLIFIER:

The physical quantities are usually measured with the help of transducers.
The output of transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator (or)
display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation amplifier.
The instrumentation Amplifier is also called data amplifier and is basically a
difference amplifier. The expression for its voltage gain is generally in the form.

VO
AV =
V2- V1

VO → output of the amplifier

V2 - V1 → Differential input which is to be amplified
The circuit diagram of instrumentation amplifier is shown in fig

Instrumentation
Amplifier
102
 The OP-amps A1 and A2 as shown in fig are voltage follower (or) buffer
circuit acting as the input stage for each of the inputs V1 and V2. They have zero
differential input voltage, Vid = O under such condition with common mode signal is
zero and V1 = V2 the voltage across R is Zero.
The voltages at the inverting terminals of the buffers are equal to the input
voltages. Since no current flows through the R and R1 resistors, the output voltages
are V2- = V2 and V1- = V1 respectively.
If V1 ≠ V2 them a current flows through the resistor R and R-, and (V2- - V1-) > (V2 -
V1). Therefore the circuit will have more differential gain and CMRR.

The current flowing in the resistor

R is I = (V1 - V2)
R

Also Same current I will flow through the resistor R-

The Voltage at the non inverting terminal of OP-Amp A3 is R2V1-
R1 + R2

By using Super Position theorem, we get

Simplifying we get

R2
VO = (V1- - V2-) → (1)
R1

Since There is no current entering the OP-Amp, the current I = (V1-V2) ,

R
-
Which flows through the Resistor R

R-
- -
V1 = R I + V1 = (V1-V2) + V1
R

103
and

-R-
- -
V2 = R I + V2 = (V1-V2) + V2
R

Substituting the values of V1- and V2- in equ 1, Vo is given by

R2 2R-
Vo = (V2 - V1) + (V2 - V1)
R1 R1

R2 2R-
Vo = R1 1+ (V2 - V1)
R
Features of Instrumentation Amplifier

5 High gain accuracy

6 High CMRR
7 High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
8 low dc offset
9 low output impedance

4.8. Charge amp with Zero Electric Crystal

Charging amplifier with Crystal

104
 The charge amplifier are usually constructed using an OP-Amp or other high
gain semi conductor circuit with a negative feedback capacitor. The input current is
offset by a negative feedback current flowing in the capacitor. Which is generated by
an increase in output voltage of the Amplifier. The output voltage is dependent on the
value of input current, it has to offset and the inverse of the value of the feedback
capacitor. The greater the capacitor value, the less output voltage has to be
generated to a particular feedback current flow.
The input impedance of the circuit is almost zero because of the miller effect
hence all the stray capacitance are virtually grounded and they have no influence on
the output signal.
Ideal Circuit

Ideal Circuit for analyzing charge Amplifier

4.9. Low Pass and High pass filter using OP-Amp:

The filter used in a PLL, may be either passive type (or) active type.
Such as the Low pass Filter and high pass filters can be made using just a single
resistor in series with a non polarized capacitor connected across a sinusoidal input
signal.

105
Active Low pass filter

Active low Pass filter

The low pass filter not only removes the high frequency components and
noise, but also control the dynamic characteristics of the PLL. These characteristics
include capture and lock range, bandwidth and transient response. In filter bandwidth
is reduced, the response time increases.

The main disadvantage of passive filters is that the amplitude of the output
signal is less than that of the input signal. The gain is never greater than unity and
that the load impedance affects the filter characteristics.

In Active filters contain active components such as OP-Amp, transistors (or)

FET’s within their circuit design. They their power from an external power source and
use it to boost or amplify the output signal.
Frequency Response Curve

Frequency response curve.

106
 The frequency response curve drawn between gain verses frequency. The cut
of corner frequency calculated by the formula using.

1
fc = Hz
2 CR2

While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage is
that it has no voltage gain above one. However the voltage gain is unity, the power
gain is very high as its output impedance is much lower than its input impedance.

4.10. High pass filter

The basic operation of an active high pass filter (HPF) is the same as for its
equivalent RC passive high pass filter design providing amplification and gain
control.

The previous active low pass filter circuit the simplest form of an active high
pass filter is to connect a standard inverting (or) non inverting OP-Amp to the basic
RC high passive filter circuit as shown.

Active high pass filter

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 The passive high pass filter is infinite frequency response, the maximum pass
band frequency response of an active high pass filter is limited by the open-loop
characteristics.
[

Frequency response curve for high pass filter :

Frequency in HZ

This curve between gain verses frequency then the performance of high pass
filer at high frequencies is limited by this unity gain crossover frequency which
determines the overall Bandwidth of the open loop amplifier.

The OP-Amp based active filters can achiever very good accuracy and
performance provided that low tolerance resistors and capacitors are used.

5.7 Pulse Height/Width Modulation:

Pulse height / width modulation

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 In the pulse width modulation / pulse amplitude modulation (PWM/PAM)
multiplier, the pulse width of a repetitive train of pulse is made to be proportional to
one input voltage and the pulse amplitude is mode to be proportional to the other
input voltage.
‡ Vx = KxA

Vy = Kyt
Vz = KzT
Where Kx, Ky and Kz are scale factors

A = height (amplitude) of pulse

t = pulse width pulse
T = are of the pulse
‡ Vz is given by

Vz = KzT = Kz At
= Kz VxVy
KxKy

To obtain the above result, the pulses are passed through an integrating circuit (or
low pass filter). The output Vz will be proportional o the pulse area i.e, proportional to
the product of two input voltages.

This method provided high Accuracy, and low switching speed.

5.8 PLL [PHASE LOCKED LOOP]

The phase locked loop (PLL) is an important building block of linear systems.
It is basically a closed loop system. PLL was first introduced in its discrete form in
early 1930: when it was used for radar synchronization and communication
Applications.

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 PLL is designed to lock the ouput frequency and phase of the input signal
PLLs are available as inexpensive monolithic IC.

Basic principles of PLL:

The PLL is a circuit which causes a particular system to track with another
one. That means, PLL synchronizes on output signal with an input signal in
frequency as well as phase.

Block diagram of a Phase locked loop

The phase locked loop (PLL) in its basic form. As illustrated in this figure, the phase
locked loop consists of (1) a phase detector, (2) a low pass filter and (3) a voltage
controlled oscillator.

The phase detector, (or) comparator compares, the input frequency f IN with
the feedback frequency fOUT. The output voltage of a phase detector is a dc voltage
and therefore is often referred to as the error voltage. The output of the phase
detector is then applied to the low pass filter, with removes the high frequency noise
and produces a de level. This dc level, in turn, is the input to the voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO). The filer also helps in establishing the dynamic characteristics of
the PLL circuit. The output frequency of the VCO circuit is directly proportional to the
input dc level. The VCO frequency is compared with the input frequencies and
adjusted until it is equal to the input frequencies.

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 The phase locked loop goes through three states:

5.8.1 Free Running

5.8.2 Capture and
5.8.3 Phase lock (or) pull-in-time

Before the input is applied, the phase locked loop is in the free running state.
once the input frequency is applied, the VCO frequency starts to change and the
phase locked loop is said to be in the capture mode. The VCO frequency continues
to change until it equals the input frequency and the phase locked loop is then in the
phase locked state. When phase locked, the loop tracks any charge in the input
frequency through its repetitive action

Applications:

1. FM frequency modulationStereo decoders

2. Motor speed control
3. Tracking filters.
4. Frequency synthesized transmitters and receivers
5. FM demodulators
6. Frequency shift key (FSK) decoders
7. Generation of local oscillator frequencies in TV and in FM tuners.
8. Used to generate ramp waveforms.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART – A (2 Marks)
1. Draw triangular waveform.
2. Draw square waveform.
3. What is operational amplifiers.
4. What is instrumentation amplifier.
5. Draw the diagram for low pass filter using OP-Amp.
6. Draw the diagram for High pass Filter using OP-Amp.
7. What is PLL?
8. What is capture range?
9. What is lock range?

PART – B (3 Marks)
1. Explain operational amplifier.
2. Explain Instrumentation amplifier and mention its advantages.
3. Compare low pass filter using OP-Amp with high pass filter.
4. Explain PLL?
5. Compare lock range with capture range.
6. Mention some applications of PLL.

PART – C (10 Marks)

1. Explain ramp generator with a neat diagram.

2. Explain saw tooth generation with a neat diagram.
3. Explain triangular generator with a neat diagram.
4. Explain instrumentation amplifier with a neat diagram.
5. Explain low pass filter with OP-Amp with a neat diagram.
6. Explain high pass filter with OP-Amp with a neat diagram.
7. Explain PLL with a neat diagram.

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