CLASSIFICATION II

Course Outline
 Review binomial nomenclature.
 General principles of classification.
 General characteristics of kingdoms:
Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
 Main characteristics of major divisions of plantae:
Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Spermatophyta (Gymnospermae and Angiospermae:
Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae).
 Main characteristics of Phyla Arthropoda and Chordata.
 Arthropoda: Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Insecta, Crustacea, Arachnida.
 Chordata: Pisces (Osteochthyes), Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
 Construction and use of simple dichotomous keys based on observable features of plants
and animals.

Principles of Classification
 Due to the wide variety of organisms living on earth, it is necessary to group them into
categories and give these categories particular names.
 The study of grouping organisms according to their relationships is called taxonomy.
 Every organism is assigned to a species and the species are grouped into genera which
consist of two or more species.
 A species is a group of organisms that have very similar characteristics and can
interbreed to produce viable/ fertile offspring.
 It is also the smallest taxon.
 Many species can be sub-divided into races, varieties or strains.

Hierarchy of Taxa
 Based on similarities and differences between them, organisms are placed in seven major
taxonomic units (taxa).
 The largest taxon is the Kingdom.
 This is subdivided into Phyla, then Classes, Order, Families, Genera, and Species.

Binomial nomenclature
 This is the system of naming living organisms that is internationally accepted.
 It involves giving organism two names, a generic name and a specific name.
 The system follows some basic rules:
a) The generic name is followed by the specific name.
b) The generic name must start with a capital letter and the specific name with a
small letter.
c) The scientific name must be written in italics, if typed, or the names must be
underlined separately e.g. Homo sapiens (man) or Homo sapiens.

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  The scientific names are derived from Latin or Greek.

The Five Kingdoms of Classification

 The most generally accepted classification system now contains five kingdoms. These
are;
 Monera
 Protoctista
 Fungi (Mycota)
 Plantae
 Animalia

1) Kingdom: Monera
These include bacteria and blue-green algae.

General characteristics

a) Bacteria
1) They are unicellular and microscopic.
2) They are prokaryotic. They have no nucleus and their DNA is dispersed in the cytoplasm.
3) They have few cell organelles which are not bound by a membrane. Mitochondria are
absent.
4) They are bound by a cell wall made of mucoproteins and an outer slimy layer made of
mucin.
5) Some are autotrophic and carry out photosynthesis. Others are heterotrophic and feed
either parasitically or saprophytically.
6) Reproduction is mostly asexual, through binary fission.
7) Most are anaerobes, but some respire aerobically.
8) Most move by means of a flagellum.

Bacteria are classified according to their shape; (fig.1.3 pg.6)

 Spherical bacteria – coccus(cocci)
 Rod-shaped bacteria – bacillus(bacilli)
 Coma –shaped bacteria – vibrio
 Spiral-shaped bacteria – spirillae

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Economic importance of bacteria

Some bacteria are harmful while others are useful.

Harmful bacteria

1) Some cause diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid, meningitis, cholera, food poisoning.
2) Saprophytic bacteria cause food decay.

Useful bacteria

1) Many saprophytic bacteria are useful in decomposition of dead organisms thus bringing
about recycling of nutrients.
2) Others e.g. Rhizobuim sp. are nitrogen fixing bacteria while Nitrosomonas sp. and
Nitrobacter sp. are nitrifying bacteria. They enrich the soil by converting free nitrogen
into nitrates or by converting ammonium compounds into nitrites and nitrates.
3) Some are used to produce antibiotics e.g. streptomycin.
4) More recently bacteria have been used to produce insulin through genetic engineering.
5) Some are used in the manufacture of cheese and yoghurt.
6) They are also used in the treatment of sewage.

b) Blue-green algae
 These include all photosynthetic prokaryotes e.g. Spirullina sp.
 They contain chlorophyll (green) and phycocyanin (blue) pigments which give them their
blue-green colour.
 Since they are prokaryotic, they lack chloroplasts and the pigments are dispersed in the
cytoplasm.
 Some establish a symbiotic relationship with fungi to form lichens (the fungus provides
anchorage and absorbs nutrients and the alga carries out photosynthesis).

Economic importance

 Along with other types of algae they form the primary producers in many aquatic
ecosystems because they photosynthesize.
 They also oxygenate the water.

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2) Kingdom: Protoctista

 This kingdom includes simple eukaryotes.

 Organisms in this kingdom have a nucleus bound by a nuclear membrane.
 They also have organelles.
 They are grouped into two sub-kingdoms.
1) Protozoa (Protista)
2) Algae
a) Protozoa (Protista)
 These are unicellular and eukaryotic.
 Some are autotrophic and contain chloroplasts e.g. Euglena sp.
 Others are heterotrophic and parasitic e.g. Amoeba sp. (Fig 1.5 pg. 8)

 Most are mobile and use pseudopodia, cilia or flagella for movement
 A number of protozoa cause diseases e.g.
Entamoeba histolytica – amoebic dysentery
Plasmodium vivax – malaria
Trypanosoma sp. - sleeping sickness
b) Algae
 These are aquatic autotrophs found in fresh and sea water.
 They contain chlorophyll and are thus able to carry out photosynthesis.
 They are multi-cellular but some like Chlamydomonas are unicellular.
 They also contain other pigments which give them their red and brown colours (red
algae, brown algae).
 They grow near the surface of the water where they can obtain light for photosynthesis.
 Examples include: Chlamydomonas sp., Spirogyra sp., Padina sp., etc.

Economic importance
 In marine and freshwater ecosystems, they are the main producers.
 They support a variety of aquatic organisms by providing food to them, (fish, crustacea,
molluscs, starfish).
 They also oxygenate the water.

3) Kingdom: Mycota (Fungi)

 They are eukaryotic, contain a nucleus and organelles.

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  Most of the cells are bound by a cell wall made of chitin.
 They form a network of fine threads called hyphae which form a vegetative structure
called mycelium (Fig 1.7 pg. 12)

 They lack chlorophyll and are therefore heterotrophic (parasitic or saprophytic)

e.g. Athlete’s foot, ringworms, bread mould.
 They reproduce sexually or asexually.
 asexual reproduction occurs through formation of spores.
 sexual reproduction occurs through fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches.
These then produce a zygospore from which a new fungus germinates.
 Fungi include moulds and mildews.
 Most fungi produce spores in capsules called sporangia.
 These are borne at the tip of vertical hyphae known as sporangiophores.
 Examples; Bread mould –Rhizopus sp., Mucor sp. (spores)
Yeast – Saccharomyces sp. (budding)
Mushrooms – Agaricus campestris (spores)

Economic importance

a) Harmful fungi
1) Fungi that are parasites cause disease in plants and animals.
e.g. Maize and wheat rust – Puccinia sp.
Thrush in humans – Candidiasis sp.
2) Saprophytic fungi cause decomposition of food, as well as food poisoning.
Aspergillus sp. attacks stored grain and produces deadly aflatoxins. This occurs if the grain is
not dried thoroughly.

b) Useful fungi:

1) When saprophytic bacteria carry out extracellular digestion, they break down organic matter
to its chemical components (mineral salts). Some of these mineral salts are absorbed by plants.
The fungi therefore play an important role in recycling nutrients and enhancing soil fertility.

2) Mushrooms are a source of food for humans. They are rich in proteins, vitamins and mineral
salts.

3) The blue-green mould is used to flavour blue-green cheese.

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4) Penicillium sp. is used in the production of the antibiotic penicillin. This antibiotic is effective
against Staphylococcus bacteria which cause infections such as boils, food poisoning and
pneumonia.

5) In genetic engineering yeast has been used to produce enzymes and vaccines against diseases
such as hepatitis.

6) In the brewing industry yeast (Saccharomyces sp.) are used to produce beer and wine when
they act on sugar anaerobically to produce alcohol.

7) In the baking industry when yeast is added to dough it releases carbon (IV) oxide during
fermentation causing it to rise. During baking the heat causes the gas to escape leaving air holes
that make the bread light.

8) Trees such as Eucalyptus sp. and conifers form a symbiotic relationship with soil fungi. The
fungus forms a network of hyphae which absorb mineral ions from the soil and supply them to
the tree. The tree in turn provides food to the fungus. This symbiotic relationship is called
mycorrhiza.

4) Kingdom: Plantae

General characteristics:
 They are multicellular and eukaryotic
 They are photosynthetic and have the pigment chlorophyll.
 Most have body differentiated into leaves, stem and roots.
 Most have a vascular system.
 They show alternation of generations.
 Their cells have cellulose cell walls.
 Most reproduce sexually, but some reproduce asexually.

Kingdom Plantae has three major divisions:

 Division: Bryophyta
 Division: Pteridophyta
 Division: Spermatophyta

Division: Bryophyta
These include mosses and liverworts.
 The plant body is not differentiated into root, stem and leaves. They are either thalloid or
with simple leaf like or stem like structures.
 They have rhizoids for absorbing water and mineral salts and anchoring the plant to the
substratum.
 They lack a vascular system.

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  They contain chlorophyll.
 Sexual reproduction is dependent on water.
 They exhibit alternation of generations, that is the plant alternates between the
sporophyte and gametophyte generations.

Division: Pteridophyta
These are non- flowering plants and include all types of ferns.
Characteristics
1) They have relatively large leaves called fronds.
2) They also have roots and stem but no flowers.
3) They have a well-developed vascular transport system.
4) They have chlorophyll hence are photosynthetic.
5) They grow in damp shaded places although a few can grow in full sunlight. They are
common in forests.
6) They exhibit alternation of generations like bryophytes.
The sporophyte generation is the larger plant. The gametophyte generation is a small
flattened thallus called a prothallus.
Examples: Dryopteris sp. (common fern)
Salvinia sp. (aquatic fern) (Fig 1.9 pg.)

Division: Spermatophyta

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1) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed-bearing structures.
2) They have a highly developed vascular transport system.
3) They reproduce sexually and fertilization involves growth of a pollen tube.
4) Seeds are produced after fertilization.
5) They exhibit alternation of generations. However, the sporophyte is the dominant generation
while the gametophyte is greatly reduced and enclosed within the sporophyte, (in the seed-
producing structures).
6) They contain chlorophyll so they are photosynthetic.

This division has two main sub-divisions:

a) Gymnospermatophyta
b) Angiospermatophyta
a) Gymnospermatophyta
1) These reproduce by means of cones. They bear male cones and female cones.
2) After fertilization seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked.
3) They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle-like leaves, rolled leaves, sunken
stomata and thick waxy cuticles.
4) Their xylem mainly consists of tracheids and their phloem lacks companion cells.

They are divided into three main classes namely:

 Coniferales
 Cycadales
 Ginkgoales
The main distinguishing features of each class are summarized in the table
below:

Coniferales Cycadales Ginkgoales

Include all common -Superficially resemble -Members are very rare,
gymnosperms palms only surviving example
-Have small needle-like -Have evergreen long being Ginkgo biloba
leaves pinnate leaves, clustered at -Are deciduous have fan-
-Are evergreen the apex like leaves
-Bear male and female -Have thick short -Their over-ripe seeds
cones (male cones on the unbranched stems produce butyric acid
terminal bud, female cones -Have cones at the apex of
on the lateral buds) the trunk
-Female cones bear naked -Are dioecious (separate
seeds sexes)

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 Cycad

Conifer

Ginkgo

b) Angiospermatophyta
1) They are flower bearing.
2) Seeds are enclosed in a fruit.
3) Xylem has vessels and tracheids and phloem has companion cells.
4) They exhibit double fertilization.
They are divided into two classes namely:
 Monocotyledonae
 Dicotyledonae
The main distinguishing features of monocots and dicots are summarized below:
(Table 1.5 pg. 17)

Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae

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Diag. Fig.1.11 (a) and (b)

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Economic importance of Angiosperms
1) Provide wood for construction, furniture, paper, etc.
2) Are a source of food e.g.
3) Are a source of income and foreign exchange – horticultural products e.g. flowers, fruits
and vegetables.
4) Source of medicine e.g. quinine
5) Source of rubber.
6) Nesting sites for birds – tourist attraction.
7) Security – hedges
8) Aesthetic purposes – flowers and grass on lawns.

Kingdom: Animalia

General characteristics
1) They are eukaryotic and multicellular.
2) Their cells have no cell walls.
3) Hey are all heterotrophic.
4) Most reproduce sexually but a few e.g. hydra reproduce asexually.
5) Most show locomotion, but a few are sessile e.g. hydra.
The kingdom has nine phyla namely:
a) Porifera – sponges
b) Coelentrata – sea anemone
c) Platyhelminthes – tapeworm
d) Nematoda – roundworms
e) Annelida – earthworms
f) Mollusca – snails
g) Echinodermata – starfish
h) Arthropoda – bees, locusts.
i) Chordate – man, fish.

We shall only study Arthropoda and Chordata in detail.

Phylum: Arthropoda
This is the largest phylum.
Main characteristics
1) They have jointed appendages.

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2) The body is covered with a hardened exoskeleton made of chitin. The exoskeleton provides
surfaces for muscle attachment. The exoskeleton is shed at intervals to allow for increase in
size in a condition known as moulting (ecdysis).
3) They are segmented.
4) They show bilateral symmetry.
5) They have an open circulatory system.
6) The head is well developed. It has eyes and sensory structures and a fairly well-developed
brain
7) Gaseous exchange is through a tracheal system. Some aquatic forms use gills for gaseous
exchange.
8) Reproduction is mainly sexual with internal fertilization.

The phylum Arthropoda is divided into five main classes:

 Crustacea
 Chilopoda
 Diplopoda
 Arachnida
 Insecta

Class: Crustacea
This class includes: Crayfish, crabs and prawns.

General characteristics
1) The head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax.
The cephalothorax is usually protected by a carapace.
Hence their body is divided into two parts: cephalothorax and abdomen.
2) They have two pairs of antennae.
3) They have five pairs of legs arising from the thorax.
4) They have a pair of compound eyes.
5) They have three pairs of mouthparts, one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae.
6) Gaseous exchange occurs through gills.
(Fig. 1.21 pg. 23)

Class: Chilopoda (Centipedes)

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 1) They have an elongated body that is dorso-ventrally flattened.
2) The body is divided into head and trunk.
3) The trunk consists of 15 or more segments.
4) Each segment has one pair of walking legs.
5) The head has a pair of simple eyes and a pair of antennae.
6) They have poison claws on the head which secrete a poisonous substance. They are
carnivorous and feed on ant larvae.
7) They carry out gaseous exchange through a tracheal system.
8) They are terrestrial.
(Fig. 1.18 [a] pg. 22)

Class: Diplopoda (Millipedes)

1) They have an elongated cylindrical body.
2) The body is divided into head, short thorax and trunk.
3) The body has between 9 and 100 segments.
4) Each segment has two pairs of walking legs.
5) The head has a pair of short antennae and mandibles.
6) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing.
Gaseous exchange occurs through a tracheal system.
7) They have no poison claws.
8) They are terrestrial. (Fig. 1.18 [b] pg. 22).

Class: Arachnida
This class includes: spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks.
1) Their body is divided into two parts: cephalothorax and abdomen.
2) The ventral side of the cephalothorax has two chelicerae which have claw-like structures
that produce poison that paralyses prey.
3) The cephalothorax also has four pair of walking legs.
4) Each leg ends with two toothed claws.

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 5) They have no antennae. Instead they have a pair of pedipalps which are short and look
like legs. They are sensitive to touch.
6) They have eight simple eyes on the cephalothorax.
7) Most have book lungs for gaseous exchange although some use a tracheal system.
8) They are carnivorous and paralyze their prey with poison before feeding on it. Some are
parasitic e.g. ticks. (Fig. 1.20 pg. 23)

Class: Insecta
Insects form half the population of animals on earth.
They occupy all kinds of habitats in air, water and land.

Characteristics
1) The body is divided into three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.
2) The thorax is made up of three segments, with three pairs of legs.
3) Some insects have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax.
4) They have one pair of antennae on the head.
5) They have a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes.
6) The mouth parts consist of mandibles, maxillae and labium.
These are modified according to their feeding habits e.g. chewing, sucking.

7) They breathe through spiracles and gaseous exchange occurs through the tracheal system.
8) Insects undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis.
9) Excretion occurs through malpighian tubules and the excretory product is uric acid.
(Fig. 1.22 pg. 24)

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Phylum: Chordata
 This includes fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
 The term chordate is derived from the term notochord.
 A notochord is a long flexible rod-like structure found in all chordates at some stage in
their life. In some it persists even in adulthood e.g. Amphioxus while in others it only
exists in the embryonic stages of development. It is later replaced by a vertebral column.

Main characteristics
1) Organisms have a notochord at least in some stage of their development.
2) They have bilateral symmetry.
3) They have a single dorsal tubular nerve cord. In higher chordates it develops into a brain
anteriorly and a spinal cord posteriorly. The spinal cord is enclosed in the vertebral
column, and the brain in the cranium.
4) They have visceral clefts i.e. slits perforating the body walls at the pharynx. In fish these
become gills. In higher chordates these are only present in the embryo but in mammals
they become the eustachian tube.
5) The heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows to the heart through veins and flows out of the
heart through arteries.
6) They have a closed circulatory system.
7) They have a hard endoskeleton to which muscle blocks are attached, called myotomes.
These bring about movement and locomotion.
8) They have a complex digestive system with oral and anal openings.

The phylum Chordata is divided into five classes:

a) Pisces e.g. tilapia.
b) Amphibian e.g. frogs, toads, newts, salamanders.
c) Reptilia e.g. snakes, lizards, geckos, tortoises, crocodiles.
d) Aves e.g. flamingoes, vultures.
e) Mammalia e.g. humans, monkeys, whales, dolphins, dogs.

Class Pisces
 These include all types of fish.
They are all aquatic.

Characteristics
1) They have a long narrow, stream-lined body.
2) Their skin surface is covered with hard scales.

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 3) They have no limbs instead they have fins that assist in balance and steering.
4) They have internal gills connected to the pharynx. These are for gaseous exchange.
5) They reproduce by means of eggs which are fertilized externally.
6) They possess a lateral line system for sensitivity.
7) Their heart consists of two chambers, an auricle and a ventricle with a single circulatory
system.
8) Their body temperature changes according to the temperature of the environment i.e. they
are poikilothermic (ectothermic).
9) Their eyes are covered by a nictitating membrane. (Fig.1.23 [b] pg. 25)

Class: Amphibia

Characteristics
1) They have four well developed limbs. The hind limbs are longer and more powerful than
the fore-limbs. The limbs are used for locomotion on land and swimming in water.
2) They have a double circulatory system i.e. blood passes through the heart twice in a
complete circuit through the body.
3) They have a three chambered heart with two atria and only one ventricle.
4) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, gills and lungs.
5) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes.
6) They are poikilothermic (ectodermic)
7) They live in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats in different stages of their life cycle.
8) They reproduce by means of eggs which are fertilized externally. The eggs are laid in
water.
(Fig.1.24 pg. 26)

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Class: Reptilia

Characteristics
1) They have two pairs of short pentadactyl limbs (limbs with five digits) which they use for
walking. Some e.g. snakes have no limbs, but have vestigial pectoral and pelvic girdles.
2) Their skin is dry and covered with hard scales.
3) Their jaws bear hard conical teeth for grasping prey. They do not chew their food.
4) They reproduce by means of eggs which are fertilized internally.
5) They are poikilothermic (ectothermic).
6) They have a double circulatory system. The heart has three chambers with two atria and a
partially divided ventricle.
However, crocodiles have a four – chambered heart.
7) They have well developed lungs for gaseous exchange. (Ref. Fig 1.25 pg. 27)

Class: Aves

Characteristics
1) Their skin is covered with feathers which are modified scales. These protect them from
mechanical damage and insulate them against heat loss. They also aid in flight.
2) They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. The fore- limbs are modified into wings used
for flight. The hind limbs are used for walking, running, scratching, perching and
grasping prey. They are covered with scales.
3) They have hollow bones.
4) The sternum is enlarged to form a keel for attachment of flight muscles.
5) The jaws are modified to a hard beak or bill and have no teeth.
6) They lay eggs i.e. they are oviparous. The eggs are covered by a hard-calcareous shell.
7) They reproduce by means of eggs which are fertilized internally. The eggs are covered by
a calcareous shell.
8) They show parental care until the fledglings are able to fly.
9) They are homoeothermic (endothermic).
10) They have a pair of lungs for gaseous exchange.
11) They excrete their nitrogenous waste as semi- solid uric acid. Since they have no urinary
bladder, the uric acid is delivered to the cloaca where it is voided with faeces.
12) They have a double circulatory system with a four-chambered heart, which has two atria
and two ventricles. (Ref. Fig 1.26 pg. 28)

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Class: Mammalia

Characteristics
1) They have mammary glands in females which produce milk for nourishment for the
young, hence the name Mammalia.
2) Their skin is covered with hair. In many mammals it forms a thick layer called fur. This
provides insulation.
3) They are viviparous i.e. the embryos develop within the uterus of the female.
4) Fertilization is internal.
5) They give birth to their young.
6) They have four pentadactyl limbs which are modified in different mammals for various
functions e.g. flying in bats, swimming in whales and dolphins, running in antelopes and
lions, walking and grasping in man.
7) Their skin contains sweat glands and sebaceous glands.
8) Most mammals have external ears or pinna.
9) They have a pair of well-developed lungs used for gaseous exchange. The lungs are
located in the chest or thoracic cavity and separated from the abdomen by a diaphragm.
10) They are homoeothermic.
11) Their teeth are differentiated into four different types in relation to their feeding habits.
(heterodont dentition).
12) They have a double circulatory system with a four-chambered heart.
13) Their brain is highly developed.
14) They have seven cervical bones in their neck.

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Identifying an Organism

The Dichotomous Key

 This is an identification key that is used to identify organisms based on clear observable
structural features, showing similarities and differences.
 The key is a list of pairs of contrasting characteristics.
 When identifying an organism, one moves through the list, selecting – step by step – the
appropriate features that apply to the organism.
 Some identification keys are very detailed while others are broader.
 Examples of contrasting characteristics;
1a. Leaf margin entire or smooth.
b. Leaf margin serrated or toothed.

External features of plants

 The most commonly used features of plants in the construction of the dichotomous key
are leaves and flowers.

Typical leaf of an Angiosperm

 Plants have different leaf features used in plant classification.
1) Leaf form
 The leaf can be simple or compound.
 A simple leaf is made up of only one leaf blade that is attached directly to the stem by a
petiole.
 In grasses the petiole expands and forms a sheath which partly surrounds the stem.
 A compound leaf is divided into two or more leaflets each attached separately to the leaf
petiole.
 It may be;
 Trifoliate – leaf made up of three leaflets.
 Pinnate – leaf made up of several leaflets arranged along the petiole e.g. Nandi
flame tree.
 Bi-pinnate – each leaflet further subdivided e.g. Jacaranda.
 Digitate – leaflets all arising from the top of the petiole e.g. Bombax.
2) Leaf shape
 Leaves have diversity of shapes including
 Linear – long and narrow e.g. maize leaf.
 Ovate – oval shaped
 Cordate – heart shaped
 Palmate – several deep lobes.
3) Leaf venation
 This is the visible pattern of veins on the leaf surface.
 There are two basic patterns of veins on leaves;

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 (i) Parallel venation – characteristic of monocotyledons e.g. maize.
(ii) Reticulate venation – characteristic of dicotyledons e.g. bean. This has one or
more thick veins from which smaller veins arise forming a network.
4) Leaf margin
 This refers to the edge of the leaf blade.
 It may be;
 Smooth or entire e.g. mango
 Serrated or toothed e.g. Hibiscus
 Crenulated or wavy e.g. Bryophyllum
 Lobed e.g. passion fruit, Bauhinia
5) Leaf arrangement
 This is the pattern of leaf attachment to the stem:
 Opposite
 Alternate
 Whorled
 Spiral

Rules used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key

1. Use morphological characteristics e.g. type of leaf, symmetry etc.

2. Start with the major characteristics, then proceed to the lesser variations e.g. type of leaf,
then venation.
3. Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number.
4. Use identical forms of words for the contrasting statements
e.g. 1(a) Leaf simple.
(b) Leaf compound.
5. Avoid generalizations e.g.
(a) Short plants
(b) Tall plants
Be specific in the description

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