Chapter: 4

1. A Glimpse Of Sanchi

1. Europeans became interested in Sanchi

● In the 19th century, many Europeans admired the Sanchi Stupa.

● The French asked Shahjehan Begum for permission to take the eastern gateway to
France and keep it in a museum.
● Some English people also wanted to take it.
● Luckily, they accepted plaster copies instead of the real gateway.
● So, the original gateway stayed at Sanchi in Bhopal.

2. Contribution of the Begums of Bhopal

● Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum gave money to protect
and preserve Sanchi.
● John Marshall thanked Sultan Jehan Begum by dedicating his books on Sanchi to
her.
● She paid for:
○ Building the museum at Sanchi.
○ Building the guesthouse where John Marshall stayed.
○ Publishing his books.
3. Why Sanchi still exists

● Sanchi survived because:

○ The rulers made wise decisions.
○ It was saved from people who wanted to remove its sculptures and send
them to museums in Europe.
● Today, Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centres.
● It has helped historians understand early Buddhism much better.
● The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has successfully restored and protected
the site.

4. Meaning of the next paragraph

The author asks some important questions:

● Why was the stupa built?

● What was kept inside it?
● Why is there a stone railing around it?
● Who built and paid for it?
● When was it discovered?

To answer these questions, we must study:

● Ancient texts
● Sculptures
● Architecture
● Inscriptions (writings carved on stone)

The chapter will now explain the history of early Buddhism to understand Sanchi better.

2. The Background Sacrifices And Debates

The Background: Sacrifices and Debates

● Around 600 BCE to 300 BCE (the middle of the first millennium BCE), the world
went through many important changes.
● During this time, many great thinkers and philosophers appeared in different
countries:
○ Zarathustra in Iran
○ Kong Zi (Confucius) in China
○ Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece
○ Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India
● These thinkers tried to answer important questions such as:
○ Why do we exist?
○ What is the purpose of life?
○ What is the relationship between humans and the universe (cosmic order)?
● At the same time:
○ New kingdoms were being formed.
○ New cities were growing.
○ People’s social life (how they lived) and economic life (how they earned
money and traded) were changing, especially in the Ganga Valley.
● These great thinkers also tried to understand and explain these social and
economic changes.
2.1 The Sacrificial Tradition

Before Buddhism and Jainism began, people in India already followed different religious
traditions. One of the most important was the early Vedic tradition, which is described
in the Rigveda.

The Rigveda was written between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE. It contains hymns (prayers
or songs) praising many gods, especially:

● Agni – the god of fire

● Indra – the god of rain and war
● Soma – the god associated with a sacred drink

These hymns were sung during sacrifices (yajnas). During these rituals, people prayed
for:

● More cattle
● Sons
● Good health
● Long life

How sacrifices changed over time

● At first, sacrifices were performed together by the whole community.

● Later (1000 BCE–500 BCE), the head of each family performed sacrifices for the
happiness and well-being of the family.
● Some big and special sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were
performed by kings and chiefs.
These kings took the help of Brahmana (Brahmin) priests, who knew the correct rituals
and conducted the ceremonies.

2.2 New Questions

From around the 6th century BCE, the Upanishads show that people started asking new
and deeper questions about life.

They wanted to know:

 ● What is the real meaning of life?
● Is there life after death?
● Do people take birth again (rebirth)?
● Is rebirth the result of our past actions (karma)?

People discussed these questions a lot. Many thinkers and philosophers had different
opinions.

Some thinkers tried to understand the ultimate reality (the highest truth or the true
nature of the universe).

Other thinkers, who did not follow the Vedic tradition, even questioned whether there
was one single ultimate reality.

People also began to question whether sacrifices (yajnas) were really important and
whether they were the best way to achieve religious goals.

2.3 Debates and Discussions

This section tells us that, during the time of Mahavira and Buddha, many people
discussed and debated different ideas about religion and life.

Easy Explanation

● Buddhist books mention that there were 64 different schools of thought (sects).
● Teachers and philosophers travelled from place to place.
● They held debates (discussions) to convince other teachers and ordinary people
that their ideas were correct.
● These debates were held in Kutagarashalas (halls with pointed roofs) or in groves
(gardens/forests) where travelling monks stayed.
● If one philosopher won a debate, the other philosopher and his followers often
became his disciples (students).
● Because of this, the number of followers of different sects kept increasing or
decreasing over time.

Mahavira and Buddha’s Ideas

● Mahavira and Buddha did not fully accept the authority of the Vedas.
● They believed that every person (both men and women) could work hard to
achieve liberation (moksha/nirvana) from suffering.
● They taught that a person’s actions are more important than their birth.
Difference from the Brahmanical Tradition

● The Brahmanical tradition believed that a person’s position in society depended

on:
○ Their caste
○ Their gender
● But Mahavira and Buddha believed that everyone had the ability to attain
liberation, regardless of caste or gender.

3. Beyond Worldly Pleasures – The Message of Mahavira

Easy Explanation

Before Mahavira (Vardhamana) was born in the 6th century BCE, the main ideas of
Jainism already existed in North India.

According to Jain tradition:

● Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara.

● Before him, there were 23 Tirthankaras.
● A Tirthankara is a spiritual teacher who shows people the path to salvation
(moksha).

Main Beliefs of Jainism

● Jainism teaches that every living thing has a soul.

● Even stones, rocks, and water are believed to contain life in some form.
● Therefore, people should not harm any living being.

Ahimsa (Non-violence)

● The most important teaching of Jainism is Ahimsa, which means not hurting any
living being.
● This includes:
○ Humans
○ Animals
○ Plants
○ Insects
● The idea of Ahimsa greatly influenced Indian culture and thinking.
Karma and Rebirth

● Jainism teaches that a person’s karma (good and bad actions) decides the cycle of
birth and rebirth.
● To become free from this cycle, a person must:
○ Live a simple life.
○ Practise penance (self-discipline).
○ Renounce worldly pleasures.
● Therefore, becoming a monk or nun is considered the best path to salvation
(moksha).

Five Vows of Jain Monks and Nuns

Jain monks and nuns followed five vows:

1. Do not kill any living being (Ahimsa).

2. Do not steal.
3. Do not lie.
4. Observe celibacy (do not marry or have sexual relations).
Do not own property or wealth.

3.1 The Spread of Jainism

Easy Explanation

● Slowly, Jainism spread to many parts of India.

● Like the Buddhists, Jain scholars wrote many books.
● These books were written in different languages, such as:
○ Prakrit
○ Sanskrit
○ Tamil
● For many centuries, these handwritten books (manuscripts) were carefully kept in
temple libraries.

Jain Art

● The followers (devotees) of the Jain Tirthankaras made some of the earliest stone
sculptures in India.
● These sculptures have been found at many archaeological sites across the Indian
subcontinent.
● They show the spread and importance of Jainism in ancient India.
4. The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

Easy Explanation

1. Buddha’s teachings spread far and wide

● Buddha was one of the greatest teachers in history.

● Over many centuries, his teachings spread:
○ Across India
○ To China, Korea, and Japan through Central Asia
○ To Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Indonesia by sea.
2. How do we know about Buddha?

● Historians learned about Buddha from:

○ Buddhist religious texts
○ Biographies (hagiographies) written by his followers.
● These biographies were written about 100 years after Buddha’s death to preserve
the memory of his life.

3. Siddhartha’s early life

● Buddha’s real name was Siddhartha.

● He was born into the Sakya clan and was the son of a chief.
● He lived a comfortable and protected life inside the palace.
● He did not know about the sufferings of ordinary people.

4. The Four Sights

One day, Siddhartha left the palace and saw:

1. An old man
2. A sick man
3. A dead body (corpse)
4. A wandering monk (mendicant)

After seeing the first three, he understood that:

● Everyone becomes old.

● Everyone can become sick.
● Everyone will die one day.
The monk looked peaceful because he had accepted these truths and had given up
worldly desires.

5. Search for Truth

● Siddhartha decided to leave the palace and search for the truth about life.
● He tried very strict practices, such as starving himself and torturing his body
(bodily mortification).
● These practices made him very weak and close to death.

6. Enlightenment

● Finally, Siddhartha realised that extreme suffering was not the right path.
● He gave up these harsh practices.
● He sat in deep meditation for many days.
● At last, he achieved Enlightenment (true wisdom).
● After this, he became known as the Buddha, which means “The Enlightened One.”

7. Buddha’s Teaching

● For the rest of his life, Buddha taught Dhamma, which means:
○ The right way of living
○ A path to end suffering and live peacefully.

5. The Teachings of the Buddha

Easy Explanation

1. How do we know Buddha’s teachings?

● Buddha’s teachings are mainly found in the Sutta Pitaka, a Buddhist holy book.
● Some stories say Buddha performed miracles.
● However, most stories show that Buddha taught people by using logic, kindness,
and reasoning, not by showing magical powers.

2. The Story of the Grieving Woman

● A woman whose child had died came to Buddha.

● Instead of bringing the child back to life, Buddha gently explained that death is a
natural and unavoidable part of life.
 ● This helped the woman understand and accept the truth.

3. Teachings in Simple Language

● Buddha’s stories were told in the language spoken by ordinary people, so

everyone could understand them easily.

4. Main Teachings of Buddhism

(a) Anicca (Impermanence)

● Everything in the world is temporary.

● Nothing stays the same forever.
● Everything keeps changing.

(b) Anatta (No Permanent Soul)

● There is no permanent or eternal soul (self).

● Everything changes with time.

(c) Dukkha (Suffering)

● Suffering is a natural part of human life.

● Everyone experiences pain, sadness, sickness, and death.

(d) The Middle Path

● Buddha taught the Middle Path.

● A person should avoid both extremes:
○ Too much luxury and pleasure.
○ Too much self-torture or severe penance.
● A balanced life leads to peace and wisdom.

5. About God

● Early Buddhism did not focus on whether God exists or not.

● Buddha believed that what mattered most was how people lived and behaved.

6. Buddha’s Views on Society

 ● Buddha believed that society is created by human beings, not by God.
● He advised kings and wealthy householders (Gahapatis) to be:
○ Kind
○ Honest
○ Ethical
● He believed that every person can improve society through their own actions.

7. Nibbana (Nirvana)

● Buddha taught that people can escape the cycle of birth, rebirth, and suffering by:
○ Doing good and righteous actions.
○ Giving up ego (pride) and desires.
● This state is called Nibbana (Nirvana).
● Nibbana means freedom from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.

Buddha’s Last Message

Before his death, Buddha told his followers:

“Be lamps unto yourselves.”

This means:

● Depend on yourself.
● Work hard to achieve your own liberation.
● Do not depend completely on others.

6. Followers of the Buddha

Paragraph 1

● After becoming enlightened, Buddha gathered many followers.

● He started a Sangha, which was a group of monks who spread his teachings
(Dhamma).
● The monks lived a very simple life. They owned only basic things like a bowl for
collecting food.
● They survived on alms (food given by other people), so they were called bhikkhus
(monks).
Paragraph 2

● At first, only men were allowed to join the Sangha.

● Later, women were also allowed to join because Ananda, one of Buddha’s closest
disciples, requested Buddha to permit them.
● Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, became the first bhikkhuni (female
monk).
● Many women became teachers of Buddhism and later became theris, meaning
respected women who achieved spiritual freedom (nirvana).

Paragraph 3

● Buddha’s followers came from all sections of society:

○ Kings
○ Rich people (gahapatis)
○ Workers
○ Slaves
○ Craftspeople
● Inside the Sangha, everyone was treated equally, no matter what their birth or
social status was.
● The Sangha made decisions through discussion and agreement (consensus).
● If members could not agree, they voted to make the final decision.

Why did Buddhism spread so quickly? – Easy English Explanation

● Buddhism spread very fast during Buddha’s life and even after his death.
● Many people were unhappy with old religious practices and were confused by the
rapid changes in society.
● Buddhism taught that a person’s character and good behaviour are more
important than their birth or caste.
● It encouraged metta (love and kindness) and karuna (compassion), especially
towards weaker and younger people.
These ideas attracted many men and women, so more and more people became
followers of Buddhism.

7. Stupas

Paragraph 1
 ● Buddhism developed by sharing ideas and discussing with other religions like
Brahmanism, Jainism, and others.
● Some ideas of these religions were not written down, so they have been lost.
● Because of these interactions, many holy (sacred) places became important in
Buddhism.

Paragraph 2

● Since ancient times, people believed that some places were sacred (holy).
● These places included:
○ Special trees
○ Unique rocks
○ Beautiful natural places
● Small shrines were built at these places.
● Such sacred places with shrines were called chaityas.

Paragraph 3

● Buddhist books mention many chaityas.

● They also describe the important places in Buddha’s life:
○ Lumbini – where Buddha was born.
○ Bodh Gaya – where Buddha attained enlightenment.
○ Sarnath – where Buddha gave his first sermon (first teaching).
○ Kusinagara – where Buddha attained nibbana (nirvana) after death.
● Over time, all these places became holy pilgrimage sites for Buddhists.
● About 200 years after Buddha’s death, Emperor Ashoka built a pillar at Lumbini to
show that he had visited the place.

7.1 Why were Stupas built?

Paragraph 1

● Some places became holy (sacred) because Buddha’s relics were buried there.
● Relics means:
○ Buddha’s bodily remains (like ashes or bones), or
○ Objects used by Buddha.
● Mounds built over these relics were called stupas.

Paragraph 2

● The tradition of building stupas existed even before Buddhism.

● Later, stupas became closely connected with Buddhism.
 ● Since they contained Buddha’s sacred relics, people respected and worshipped
the entire stupa.
● Thus, the stupa became a symbol (emblem) of Buddha and Buddhism.

Paragraph 3

● According to the Buddhist book Ashokavadana, Emperor Ashoka divided Buddha’s

relics into many parts.
● He sent these relics to important towns.
● He ordered stupas to be built over the relics.
● By the 2nd century BCE, many famous stupas had been built, including:
○ Bharhut
○ Sanchi
○ Sarnath

7.3 The Structure of the Stupa

Paragraph 1

● The word Stupa comes from a Sanskrit word meaning “heap” or “mound.”
● At first, a stupa was just a simple dome-shaped mound of earth, called the anda.
● Over time, it became a larger and more beautiful structure.
● On top of the anda was a harmika, a small square platform that represented the
home of the gods.

Paragraph 2

● A yashti (a tall pole or mast) rose from the harmika.

● At the top of the pole was a chhatri (umbrella), which was a symbol of honour and
protection.
● Around the stupa was a railing, which separated the holy (sacred) area from the
ordinary (secular) world.

Paragraph 3

● Early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were simple.

● They had:
○ Stone railings that looked like wooden or bamboo fences.
○ Four carved gateways, one in each direction (north, south, east, and west).
● Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway.
● They walked clockwise around the stupa, keeping it on their right side.
 ● This was done to show respect and to follow the path of the sun across the sky.
● Later, stupas became more decorative, with beautiful carvings, niches, and
sculptures, like those at Amaravati and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri (Peshawar, Pakistan).

8. “Discovering” Stupas – The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi

Paragraph 1

● Every stupa has its own history.

● Some stories tell how they were built, while others tell how they were discovered.
● In 1796, a local king (raja) found the ruins of the Amaravati Stupa while planning to
build a temple.
● He thought the mound might contain treasure, so he used its stones.
● Later, a British officer named Colin Mackenzie visited the site.
● He found many sculptures and made drawings, but his reports were never
published.

Paragraph 2

● In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur, visited Amaravati.

● He collected many sculpture panels and took them to Madras (Chennai).
● These sculptures became known as the Elliot Marbles.
● He also found the remains of the western gateway.
● He concluded that Amaravati was one of the biggest and most beautiful Buddhist
stupas.
● By the 1850s, many sculptures from Amaravati had been taken to:
○ Kolkata
○ Madras
○ London
● British officials even used some sculptures to decorate their gardens.
● New officials kept removing sculptures because earlier officials had done the
same.

Paragraph 3

● Archaeologist H.H. Cole disagreed with this.

● He said it was wrong to remove ancient artworks from their original place.
● He believed:
 ○ Museums should keep copies (plaster casts).
○ The original sculptures should stay where they were found.
● Unfortunately, people did not listen to him about Amaravati.
● However, his idea of preserving monuments at the original site (in situ
preservation) was later accepted for Sanchi.

Paragraph 4 – Why did Sanchi survive but Amaravati did not?

● Amaravati was discovered before people understood the importance of protecting

ancient monuments.
● So many sculptures were removed, and the stupa was damaged.
● When Sanchi was discovered in 1818:
○ Three gateways were still standing.
○ The fourth gateway had fallen but was still at the site.
○ The stupa itself was in good condition.
● Some people wanted to take Sanchi’s gateways to Paris or London.
● But finally, the monument was left where it was.
● Today, Sanchi is well preserved, while Amaravati has become only a small mound
and has lost most of its original beauty.

9. Sculpture

Paragraph Explanation

● Earlier, we learned that many sculptures were taken away from Buddhist stupas.
● These sculptures were transported to Europe.
● This happened because many people thought the sculptures were very beautiful
and valuable.
● They wanted to keep these sculptures for themselves instead of leaving them at
the original stupa.
● Now, the chapter will explain these sculptures in more detail.

9.1 Stories in Stone

Paragraph 1
 ● In the past, wandering storytellers carried scrolls (long pieces of cloth or paper)
with pictures on them.
● While telling a story, they pointed to the pictures to help people understand.
● In the same way, stone sculptures also tell stories through pictures.

Paragraph 2

● When we first look at the sculpture at Sanchi, it looks like a simple village scene
with huts and trees.
● But after careful study, historians found that it actually shows a scene from the
Vessantara Jataka.

Paragraph 3

● The Vessantara Jataka is the story of a kind and generous prince.

● The prince gave away everything he owned to a Brahmana (Brahmin).
● After that, he went to live in the forest with his wife and children.

Paragraph 4

● Historians understand the meaning of sculptures by comparing them with old

written texts.
● This helps them identify which story the sculpture is showing.

9.2 Symbols of Worship

Paragraph 1

● To understand Buddhist sculptures, art historians first had to learn about the life
stories (hagiographies) of Buddha.
● According to these stories, Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating
under a tree.

Paragraph 2

● Early artists did not make statues of Buddha in human form.

● Instead, they used symbols to show his presence.

Some important symbols were:

 ● Empty seat → Shows Buddha meditating.
● Stupa → Represents Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana (his final passing away or death).
● Wheel (Dharmachakra) → Represents Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath.

Paragraph 3

● These symbols should not be taken literally.

● For example, the tree in a sculpture is not just a tree.
● It represents the important event when Buddha attained enlightenment.

Paragraph 4

● To understand these symbols correctly, historians must learn the beliefs and
traditions of the people who made the sculptures.

9.3 Popular Traditions

The sculptures at Sanchi were not all based only on Buddhist ideas. Some were taken
from the popular beliefs and traditions of the people.

One famous sculpture shows a beautiful woman holding the branch of a tree. At first,
scholars did not understand why this image was on a Buddhist stupa because it did not
seem related to Buddhism.

Later, they realized that it represented a Shalabhanjika. According to an old belief, a

woman’s touch could make trees flower and bear fruits. People thought this was a lucky
(auspicious) symbol, so it was included in the decoration of the stupa.

This shows that when many people accepted Buddhism, they also brought their old
beliefs and customs with them. So, Buddhist art included ideas from pre-Buddhist and
non-Buddhist traditions.

The sculptures at Sanchi also show many animals, such as:

● Elephants
● Horses
● Monkeys
● Cattle
Some of these animals come from the Jataka stories (stories of the Buddha’s previous
lives). Others were carved simply to make the sculptures more beautiful and
interesting. Animals also stood for human qualities. For example:

● Elephant = strength and wisdom

Another sculpture shows a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants. The elephants
are pouring water on her, like a holy bathing ceremony (abhisheka).

Historians have different opinions:

● Some say she is Maya, the mother of the Buddha.

● Others say she is Gajalakshmi, the goddess of good fortune.

Many worshippers probably believed that the figure represented both Maya and
Gajalakshmi.

Another common design at Sanchi is the serpent (snake). It also came from old popular
traditions that were not always written in books.

An early art historian named James Fergusson thought Sanchi was mainly a place for
tree and snake worship. He believed this because he studied only the sculptures. At that
time, many Buddhist books had not yet been translated, so he did not know their full
meaning.

10. New Religious Traditions

10.1 The Development of Mahayana Buddhism

By the 1st century CE, many changes took place in Buddhist beliefs and practices.

Earlier, Buddhism taught that a person could reach Nibbana (freedom from suffering)
only through their own hard work and self-effort. People believed that the Buddha was a
human being who became enlightened by his own efforts.

Later, people’s thinking changed. They started believing that the Buddha was a saviour
who could help people achieve salvation (freedom from suffering).
At the same time, the idea of Bodhisattvas became popular.

● A Bodhisattva is a kind and compassionate person.

● They earn good karma (merit) through their good deeds.
● Instead of entering Nibbana immediately, they choose to stay in the world and
help other people reach enlightenment.

Because of these new beliefs, people began worshipping images (statues) of the
Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

This new form of Buddhism was called Mahayana, which means “Great Vehicle” (a great
path that helps many people reach salvation).

Followers of Mahayana called the older form of Buddhism Hinayana, meaning “Lesser
Vehicle” (a smaller path).

10.2 The Growth of Puranic Hinduism

The idea of a saviour was not only found in Buddhism. Similar ideas also became popular
in Hinduism.

Two important traditions developed:

● Vaishnavism – worship of Lord Vishnu as the main god.

● Shaivism – worship of Lord Shiva as the main god.

In both traditions, people worshipped their chosen god with love and devotion (bhakti).

Vaishnavism

People believed that Vishnu took different forms (avatars) to save the world whenever it
was in danger because of evil.

● There were 10 main avatars (Dashavatara).

● Different avatars were popular in different parts of India.
● Later, these local gods were accepted as forms of Vishnu. This helped bring
different groups of people together under one religion.
Shaivism

Shiva was mainly worshipped in the form of the Shiva Linga (Linga).

Sometimes, he was also shown in human form.

Sculptures of Gods

Gods and goddesses were shown in sculptures.

Their sculptures used symbols to show their powers, such as:

● Crowns (head-dresses)
● Jewellery (ornaments)
● Weapons (ayudhas) or lucky objects in their hands
● Their sitting or standing position

To understand these sculptures, historians must know the stories behind them.

The Puranas

Most of these stories are found in the Puranas.

● The Puranas were written by Brahmanas around the middle of the first millennium
CE.
● They included old stories about gods, goddesses, and religious beliefs that had
been passed down for many centuries.
● They were written in simple Sanskrit, so they could be read aloud for everyone.
● Even women and Shudras, who could not study the Vedas, could listen to and
understand these stories.

How the Puranas Developed

The Puranas grew through the sharing of ideas among:

● Priests
● Merchants
● Ordinary men and women

These people travelled from place to place and spread their beliefs.

For example:
 ● Vasudeva-Krishna was first an important god in the Mathura region.
● Over time, his worship spread to many other parts of India.

10.3 Building Temples

At the time when Buddhist stupas like the one at Sanchi were being completed, the first
Hindu temples were also being built.

These early temples were made to keep the images (idols) of gods and goddesses.

Early Temples

● The first temples had only one small square room, called the Garbhagriha
(sanctum or holy room).
● The idol of the god or goddess was kept inside this room.
● There was only one entrance, so worshippers could enter and pray.

Later, a tall tower, called the Shikhara, was built above the Garbhagriha.

The walls of temples were often decorated with beautiful sculptures.

As time passed, temples became much larger and more beautiful. They included:

● Large assembly halls

● Huge walls
● Grand gateways
● Water supply arrangements

Rock-cut Temples

Some early temples were cut out of huge rocks to make artificial caves.

This tradition of making cave temples was very old.

● Some of the earliest cave temples were built in the 3rd century BCE by the order of
Emperor Ashoka.
● They were made for monks of the Ajivika sect.

Later, this style improved over many centuries.

In the 8th century CE, people carved out an entire temple from a single rock. This
famous temple is called the Kailashnatha Temple (dedicated to Lord Shiva) at Ellora.

After completing this amazing temple, the chief sculptor was so surprised by his own
work that he said:

“Oh! How did I make it?”

This shows how difficult and wonderful the construction was.

11. Can We “See” Everything?

So far, you have learned about the beautiful art and architecture of ancient India, such
as:

● Buildings made of brick and stone

● Sculptures
● Paintings

Many of these artworks have been damaged or destroyed over time.

However, the artworks that still remain show the skill, creativity, and ideas of the
artists, sculptors, builders, and architects who made them.

But there is an important question:

● Do we always understand what these artists wanted to tell us?

● Can we know exactly what these images meant to the people who saw and
worshipped them about 2,000 years ago?

The answer is not always. Historians study these artworks carefully, but sometimes it is
difficult to know their original meaning because the people who made them lived a very
long time ago.

11.1 Grappling with the Unfamiliar

 ● Meaning: Trying to understand something that is new or strange.

Paragraph in Easy English

In the 19th century, European scholars saw Indian sculptures of gods and goddesses for
the first time. They did not understand what these statues meant.

Some statues looked strange to them because they had:

● Many arms
● Many heads
● A mix of human and animal features

Because these sculptures were unfamiliar, the scholars compared them with Greek
sculptures, which they already knew well.

They often believed that:

● Early Indian sculptures were not as good as Greek sculptures.

● But when they found statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas that looked similar to
Greek art, they became very excited.

These statues were mostly found in Taxila and Peshawar, where Indo-Greek kings had
ruled long ago.

Since these Buddha statues looked more like Greek statues, the scholars thought they
were the best examples of early Indian art.

Main Idea

The scholars judged Indian art by comparing it with Greek art because Greek art was
familiar to them.

Simple Conclusion

People often understand new or unfamiliar things by comparing them with things they
already know.
11.2 If text and image do not match …

Sometimes the text (books) and the image (sculpture) do not match clearly. This makes
it difficult for historians to understand what a sculpture really means.

Art historians often use old religious books, called the Puranas and epics, to understand
the meaning of sculptures. This method is better than comparing Indian sculptures with
Greek statues, but it is still not always easy.

A famous example is a huge rock sculpture at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). It clearly

tells a story, but historians are not sure which story it shows.

There are two different opinions:

1. Some historians believe it shows the descent of the River Ganga from heaven to
Earth. The natural crack in the middle of the rock may represent the flowing river.
This story is found in the Puranas and epics.
2. Other historians believe it shows Arjuna from the Mahabharata. They think the
central figure is Arjuna doing penance (deep prayer and meditation) on the
riverbank to receive powerful weapons.