GED Science Notes

Life Science
Chapter 1: Structures and Functions of Life

Chapter 2: Life Functions and Energy Intake

Chapter 3: Heredity

Chapter 4: Evolution

Chapter 5: Ecosystems

Chapter 6: The Human Body and Health

Physical Science
Chapter 7: Chemical Interactions

Chapter 8: Energy

Chapter 9: Motion and Force

Earth and Space Science

Chapter 10: Space Systems

Chapter 11: Earth Systems

Chapter 12: Interactions Between Earth’s Systems and Living Things

Life Science

Chapter 1: Structures and Functions of Life

1. Characteristics of Life

All living things are

- made of cells
- use energy
- grow and develop
- respond to environment (stimulus)
- reproduce
- maintain homeostasis

2. levels of Organization of Biology

Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System →

Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Cell Theory

1. All living things are made of cells

2. Cells are the basic unit of life.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotic v. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

No nucleus Has nucleus

Simple Complex

Bacteria Plants & animals

Organelles and their functions

Nucleus

- control center (contains DNA)

Mitochondria

- make energy (power house of the cell (ATP))

Ribosome

- makes protein
- located at Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cytoplasm

- jelly-like fluid

Cell Wall

- provides structural support, protection

- maintain shape and resist osmotic stress.

Chloroplast

- organelles in plant and algal cells responsible for photosynthesis (which convert
light energy inro chemical energy stored in glucose and other organic molecules.)
-

Chapter 6: Body Systems

 1. Circulatory system

the body system that moves blood through the body. It delivers oxygen and nutrients to
cells and removes water products like carbon dioxide.

It has 3 main parts:

1. Heart
2. Blood
3. Blood vessels

1. The Heart
- Located slightly to the left of your heart.
- It has 4 chambers: Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle
2. Blood
- The medium of how we transform glucose and gases (like oxygen, carbon dioxide)
- The shade of red can vary based on how much oxygen is in the blood. (that’s why we see
blue, green veins)

Blood is the a liquid connective tissue made of:

1. Plasma: yellow liquid, carries nutrients, hormones, wastes

2. Red Blood Cells (RBC): contain hemoglobin, carry oxygen, made in bone marrow
3. White Blood Cells (WBC): fight infection
4. Platelets: help blood clotting

Blood maintains a certain PH, temperature, osmotic pressure (homeostasis)

Veins: carry blood toward the heart.

- Usually carry oxygen-poor blood (except pulmonary vein)

- Have valves to prevent backflow
- BLUE

Arteries: carry blood away from the heart.

- Usually carry oxygen-rich blood (except pulmonary artery)

- Thick walls
- RED

Capillaries

- Very tiny vessels

 - Exchange oxygen, nutrients, and wastes with cells

Valves

- One-way structures that help separate the chambers and also prevent back flow.

Aorta
The aorta is the largest artery in the body.
It carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the rest of the body.

How Blood Flows Through the Heart

Deoxygenated blood (low oxygen) enters the right atrium

Moves to the right ventricle
Gets pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen

Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium

Moves to the left ventricle → aorta

Gets pumped to the whole body

Right Atrium → Right Ventricle → Lungs → Left Atrium → Left Ventricle → Aorta →
throughout the body

Digestive System

The digestive system breaks down food into small molecules that your body can absorb and use
for:

4 stages:

1. Ingestion (taking in food)

2. Digestion (breaking down food)
3. Absorption (nutrients enter blood)
4. Elimination (removing waste)
 1. Ingestion (taking in food)

Mouth
Digestion actually starts in the mouth as your saliva contains enzymes that can break
down some biomolecules

- • Mechanical digestion: chewing

- • Chemical digestion: saliva contains amylase
- • Amylase breaks down starch → simple sugars

Pharynx (Throat)
• Passageway for food
• Epiglottis prevents food from entering lungs

Esophagus (food pipe)

• Tube connecting mouth to stomach

• Uses peristalsis (wave-like muscle movement)

• Peristalsis = pushing food forward

Stomach

• Muscular sac

• Churns food
• Contains:

o Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

o Pepsin (enzyme)

Breaks proteins into smaller pieces.

Food becomes a thick liquid called chyme.

Small Intestine (Most Important for Absorption)

Three parts: DJ Ivan

1. Duodenum

2. Jejunum
 3. Ileum

where nutrients are absorbed → Small intestine

Large Intestine (Colon)

• Absorbs water (so that the body will not lose all of the water involved in the digestion.)

• Forms solid waste (feces)

• Contains helpful bacteria

Rectum

• Stores feces

Anus

• Eliminates waste

Types of Digestion

Mechanical Digestion

• Physical breakdown
• Example: chewing, stomach churning

Chemical Digestion

• Enzymes break food into molecules

Nutrient Broken Into Absorbed Into

Carbohydrates Glucose Blood

Proteins Amino acids Blood

Fats Fatty acids + glycerol Lymph system

Vitamins & minerals Small molecules Blood

Accessory Organs (Help Digestion but Food Does Not Pass Through Them)

Liver
• Produces bile

• Processes nutrients

• Detoxifies chemicals

Gallbladder
• Stores bile

• Releases bile to break down fats

Pancreas

• Produces digestive enzymes:

o Amylase (carbs)

o Protease (proteins)

o Lipase (fats)

Respiratory System

- The main function of it is gas exchange:

- Take in oxygen (O2)
- And remove carbon dioxide (CO2)
- (Your cells need oxygen to make energy (ATP), and carbon dioxide is a waste product
that must be removed.)

The path of Air (from outside to alveoli)

Air travels through:

Nose → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli

• The most important structure for gas exchange is the alveoli.

What are Alveoli?

- Tiny air sacs in the lungs

- Surrounded by capillaries (tiny blood vessels)
 - Have very thin walls
- There are millions of alveoli, which give the lungs a large surface area for exchange.)

How Gas Exchange Happens

Gas Exchange happens by diffusion.

What is diffusion?

- Diffusion is the movement of particles from area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

Inside the Alveoli:

- Oxygen concentration is high in alveoli

- Oxygen concentration is low in blood

So Oxygen moves:
Alveoli → Capillaries → Blood
Oxygen then binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells and is transported to body cells.

Carbon Dioxide Exchange:

- Carbon dioxide concentration is high in blood.

- Carbon Dioxide concentration is low in alveoli.

So Carbon Dioxide moves from Blood to Alveoli. (then exhale it)

Chapter 4: Evolution

1. Cladogram

What is a Cladogram?

A cladogram is a diagram that shows evolutionary relationships between organisms based

on shared characteristics.

It looks like a branching tree.

It shows:

• Which organisms are more closely related

• What traits they share

• Their common ancestors

Background Knowledge You Need

To understand cladograms, you need to know:

• Traits (Characteristics) – physical or genetic features (ex: feathers, fur, backbone)

 • Derived traits – new traits that appear in a group but were not present in older
ancestors

• Common ancestor – an earlier organism that different species evolved from

Example

If we compare:

• Fish

• Amphibians

• Reptiles

• Birds

• Mammals

A cladogram might show:

Fish → Amphibians → Reptiles → Birds/Mammals

Traits might appear in this order:

• Backbone

• Four limbs

• Amniotic egg

• Hair (mammals)

• Feathers (birds)

Organisms closer together on the cladogram are more closely related.

2. Common Ancestor

What is a Common Ancestor?

A common ancestor is an earlier species from which two or more different species
evolved.

It does NOT mean one modern species came from another modern species.
For example:

• Humans did NOT come from monkeys.

• Humans and monkeys share a common ancestor.

Background Knowledge

Evolution works like a branching tree:

• One species splits into two.

• Over time, they become different species.

Example:
Both humans and chimpanzees evolved from a shared ancestor millions of years ago.

3. Natural Selection

What is Natural Selection?

Natural selection is the process by which organisms with helpful traits survive and
reproduce more than others.

It was explained by Charles Darwin.

For natural selection to happen, 4 things must exist:

1. Variation – Individuals are different within a species.

2. Overproduction – More offspring are born than can survive.

3. Competition – Organisms compete for food, space, mates.

4. Survival of the fittest – Those with helpful traits survive and reproduce.

Example: Giraffes

Some giraffes had slightly longer necks.

• They could reach higher leaves.

 • They survived better.

• They had more babies.

Over many generations → giraffes evolved long necks.

⚠ Important

Natural selection:

• Does NOT give organisms what they "need"

• Works on existing variation

• Happens over many generations

4. Artificial Selection

What is Artificial Selection?

Artificial selection is when humans choose which organisms reproduce based on desired
traits.

Also called selective breeding.

Unlike natural selection:

• Nature selects in natural selection.

• Humans select in artificial selection.

Example: Dogs

All dog breeds came from wolves.

Humans selected dogs with:

• Small size → Chihuahua

• Large size → Great Dane

• Herding ability → Border Collie

Over time, dogs became very different from wolves.

Another Example

Farmers breed corn with:

• Bigger kernels

• Sweeter taste

• Disease resistance

5. Speciation

What is Speciation?

Speciation is the formation of a new species.

It happens when a population becomes so different that they can no longer reproduce with
the original population.

A species is a group that can:

• Reproduce

• Produce fertile offspring

If two groups can no longer interbreed → they are different species.

Types of Speciation

Geographic Isolation

A physical barrier separates a population.

Example:

• River

• Mountain

• Island
Over time, they evolve differently.

Example: Darwin’s finches on the Galápagos Islands.

Darwin’s Finches

On the Galápagos Islands, finches developed different beak shapes depending on food
type.

6. Extinction

What is Extinction?

Extinction happens when all members of a species die out.

The species no longer exists.

Causes of Extinction

• Climate change

• Natural disasters

• Loss of habitat

• Competition

• Human activities

Example

Dinosaurs went extinct about 66 million years ago.

Scientists believe an asteroid impact caused it.

How Everything Connects

Let’s connect all concepts together:

1. Variation exists in a population.

 2. Natural selection acts on variation.

3. Over time → populations change.

4. If populations become isolated → speciation happens.

5. New species appear.

6. Some species go extinct.

7. All relationships can be shown on a cladogram.

8. All species trace back to a common ancestor.

This is the tree of life

Evidence of Evolution – Structural Clues

Scientists use body structures to prove that evolution happened.

Why?

Because bones and body parts can show relationships between organisms — even if
they look different on the outside.

There are 3 main structural clues:

1. Homologous structures

2. Analogous structures

3. Vestigial structures

Homologous Structures

Definition:

Homologous structures are body parts that are similar in structure because they were
inherited from a common ancestor.

Even if they have different functions today, their internal structure is similar.

Example
The front limbs of:

• Humans

• Dogs

• Cats

• Whales

• Bats

They all have the same basic bone pattern:

• Humerus

• Radius

• Ulna

But they use them differently:

• Human → grabbing

• Dog → walking

• Whale → swimming

• Bat → flying

Even though the functions are different, the bone structure is similar.

That means they all came from a common ancestor.

What This Proves

If two species share similar internal structures, they likely evolved from the same
ancestor.

This supports evolution.

Analogous Structures

Definition:
Analogous structures are body parts that have similar functions, but they evolved
independently.

They do NOT come from a common ancestor.

Example

Wings of:

• Birds

• Insects

Both are used for flying.

But:

• Bird wings have bones.

• Insect wings do not.

They evolved separately.

This is called convergent evolution — when unrelated species develop similar traits
because they live in similar environments.

Key Difference

Homologous Analogous

Same structure Same function

Common ancestor No common ancestor

Different functions Similar functions

Easy trick:

• Homo = same origin

• Ana = same function

 Vestigial Structures

Definition:

A vestigial structure is a body part that no longer has a function, but was useful in
ancestors.

It is like a leftover part from evolution.

Human Example

The human tailbone (coccyx)

We don’t have tails.

But we still have the bone that once supported a tail.

That means our ancestors likely had tails.

Other Examples

• Whales have tiny hip bones (leftover from when their ancestors walked on land).

• Snakes have small leg bones inside their bodies.

These structures show change over time.

Why This Is Important

Structural clues help scientists:

• Compare species

• Find common ancestors

• Build cladograms

• Understand evolutionary relationships

Scientists like Charles Darwin used structural similarities as evidence for evolution.
 Quick GED Summary

Homologous structures

Same structure → common ancestor → may have different functions

Analogous structures

Same function → different structure → no common ancestor

Vestigial structures

Leftover body parts → no current function → evidence of change

Practice Questions

Passage 1: The Island Birds

A population of birds once lived together on a large island. After a volcanic eruption, lava
split the island into two smaller islands. On one island, there were mostly hard seeds. On
the other island, there were mostly insects.

After thousands of years, the birds on the seed island developed large, thick beaks. The
birds on the insect island developed long, thin beaks. Eventually, the two groups could no
longer reproduce with each other.

Question 1

What process most likely caused the formation of two new bird species?

A. Artificial selection
B. Extinction
C. Speciation
D. Mutation only

Question 2

What was the main cause of the birds becoming different?

A. Humans breeding them
B. Geographic isolation
C. Climate staying the same
D. Overpopulation

Passage 2: The Cladogram Study

A biology class created a cladogram comparing four organisms:

• Fish

• Frog

• Lizard

• Rabbit

They used these traits:

• Backbone

• Four limbs

• Amniotic egg

• Hair

They noticed that rabbits and lizards both have amniotic eggs, but only rabbits have hair.

Question 3

Which organisms share the most recent common ancestor?

A. Fish and Frog

B. Lizard and Rabbit
C. Fish and Rabbit
D. Frog and Fish

Question 4

Which trait is most recent in the cladogram?

A. Backbone
B. Four limbs
C. Amniotic egg
D. Hair

Passage 3: The Tall Giraffes

In a population of giraffes, some had slightly longer necks than others. During a drought,
leaves near the ground became scarce. Giraffes with longer necks were able to reach food
higher in trees. These giraffes survived and reproduced more often.

Over many generations, most giraffes had long necks.

Question 5

This is an example of:

A. Artificial selection
B. Natural selection
C. Extinction
D. Speciation

Question 6

Why did long necks become common?

A. Giraffes wanted longer necks

B. Humans bred them
C. Long-necked giraffes survived and reproduced more
D. Short-necked giraffes stretched their necks

Passage 4: Dog Breeding

All modern dogs descended from wolves. Over time, humans bred dogs for specific traits
such as size, speed, and temperament. This led to many different breeds.

Question 7

This is an example of:

A. Natural selection
B. Artificial selection
C. Extinction
D. Genetic drift

Question 8

What is the main difference between natural selection and artificial selection?

A. Natural selection involves humans

B. Artificial selection happens randomly
C. Natural selection is controlled by the environment
D. Artificial selection causes extinction

Passage 5: The Disappearing Species

About 66 million years ago, a large asteroid struck Earth. Dust filled the atmosphere,
blocking sunlight. Plants died, and many animals that depended on plants also died.
Eventually, dinosaurs became extinct.

Question 9

What does extinction mean?

A. A species changes slowly

B. A species splits into two
C. All members of a species die
D. A species adapts

Question 10

Why did many species die after the asteroid impact?

A. Humans hunted them

B. They could not adapt to environmental changes
C. They evolved too quickly
D. They moved to another planet

Passage 6: Evolutionary Relationships

Scientists discovered that whales and hippos share many similar DNA sequences. Fossil
evidence also suggests they share a common ancestor millions of years ago.

Question 11

What does it mean that whales and hippos share a common ancestor?

A. Whales came directly from hippos

B. Hippos came directly from whales
C. They evolved from the same earlier species
D. They are the same species

Question 12

Scientists would most likely show this relationship using a:

A. Food chain
B. Cladogram
C. Weather map
D. Punnett square