Physics Notes

Heat, Thermodynamics, Waves & Mechanics

April 24, 2026

ii
 Contents

1 Heat and Thermodynamics 1

1.1 Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Thermometry and Measuring Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Heat is a Form of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Thermodynamics of an Ideal Monoatomic Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 State Functions and Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5.1 Proving that Heat is Not a State Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Mayer’s Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Isothermal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.1 Work Done in an Isothermal Process for an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Microscopic Theory of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8.1 Calculation of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Adiabatic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10.1 Work Done by an Ideal Gas in an Adiabatic Process . . . . . . . . 12

2 Black Body Radiation 15

2.1 Emissive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Important Laws of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.1 Deriving Wien’s Law from Planck’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves 19

3.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 LC Circuit Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Damped Harmonic Motion (DHM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Forced or Driven Harmonic Motion (FHM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Wave Motion 23
4.1 Equation of a Simple Harmonic Traveling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Differential Equation of a Traveling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4 Superposition: Standing Waves and Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4.1 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4.2 Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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iv Contents

5 Fourier Series 27
5.1 Fourier Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2 Example: Square Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6 Practice Problems 29
Chapter 1

Heat and Thermodynamics

1.1 Thermal Equilibrium

Definition: Thermal Equilibrium

If an object A is hotter than object B, and we place them in contact for a sufficient
time, they become equally hot. The two objects are then said to be in thermal
equilibrium.

Heat Flow
A (Hotter) B (Colder)

A B

Equally hot (after sufficient time)

1.2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C,

then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

A C

A and C are in thermal equilibrium

B C

B and C are in thermal equilibrium

1
2 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

A B C

∴ A, B, and C are in thermal equilibrium

1.2.1 Thermometry and Measuring Temperature

There are measurable physical properties, such as the volume of a mercury column or
the electrical resistance of a metal wire, that vary linearly and continuously with a rise
in temperature. Thus, we have thermometric substances and thermometric properties.
Any of these properties can be used to construct a thermometer.

Mercury in a uniform glass tube can be taken as a thermometric substance. The

thermometric property is then the height of the mercury column. If we note the heights
after putting the mercury column in melting ice and in boiling water, and mark the top
of the mercury column as 0 and 100 respectively, we obtain the Celsius (◦ C) scale of
temperature.

We can also use a resistor in a meter bridge as a thermometric substance. If we

note the values of length l as l 0 and l 100 after putting resistor X in ice and in boiling
water respectively, we can measure an unknown temperature using the balancing
condition:

Meter Bridge Equation

X l
=
R 100 − l

X R
G
100 − l l

Figure 1.1: Meter Bridge Thermometer

Common Thermometric Properties

• Electrical Resistance

• Height of a liquid column

• Volume of a gas
1.3. First Law of Thermodynamics 3

1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

In all transformations, the amount of heat supplied to a system must be balanced

by the sum of the gain in internal energy of the system due to the rise in
temperature and the external work done by the system.

Mathematically:

dQ = dU + dW
dU = dQ − dW

Where:

• dQ = heat supplied to the system

• dU = change in internal energy

• dW = work done by the system

1.3.1 Heat is a Form of Energy

When two bodies of different temperatures are placed together, they attain a tem-
perature which is somewhere between the two starting temperatures. Heat energy
flows from the hotter to the colder body or system. Mechanical energy and heat are
interconvertible. Thus, heat is a form of energy.

1.4 Thermodynamics of an Ideal Monoatomic Gas

We consider a gas in a cylindrical container with a movable piston, in thermal equilib-
rium with a heat reservoir. If the gas expands, the work done by the gas is calculated
as follows:

∆W = F · ∆L
= (P A) · ∆L
= P (A · ∆L)
= P ∆V

Here,

• F = P A = Force on the piston

• A∆L = ∆V = Change of volume of the gas

• W = Work done
4 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

Handle

Piston

∆L

P ,V , T
Ideal Monoatomic Gas

Heat Reservoir at T K

Figure 1.2: Cylinder with movable piston containing an ideal monoatomic gas.

If volume V changes from Vi to Vf , then the work done is:

Work Done by a Gas

∫ ∫ Vf
W = dW = P dV
Vi

Graphically, this represents the area under the curve on a P-V diagram:

P
A(Vi , Pi )

B(Vf , Pf )

V
Vi Vf
1.5. State Functions and Parameters 5

1.5 State Functions and Parameters

State Function
A state function in thermodynamics is a property of a system that depends only
on the current equilibrium state of the system, not depending on the path taken
to reach that state.

State functions are essential because they are defined purely by the current equilib-
rium state regardless of the process used to get from one state to another. Examples:
Internal energy (U ), enthalpy (H ), entropy (S ), Gibbs free energy (G ), etc.
Characteristics of a State Function:
1. Path independent.
2. Depends only on the initial and final states.
Heat (Q ) and work (W ) are path-dependent functions, so they are not state functions.

1.5.1 Proving that Heat is Not a State Function

From the First Law:
dQ = dU + dW =⇒ dU = dQ − dW
The work done by a system or on a system depends not only on the initial and final
states but also on the path followed in the P − V diagram. Consequently, the heat Q
entering or leaving the system also depends on the path followed.

A
C

B
D

However, the quantity Q −W does not depend on the path followed. Q −W depends
only on the initial and final states. We denote Q −W by ∆U (change in internal energy).
Thus:
∆U = Q − W =⇒ Q = W + ∆U

Thermodynamic Parameters and State

Thermodynamic parameters are measurable macroscopic quantities such as P ,

V , T , etc. They are measured experimentally and are often directly associated
with our sense perception.

Thermodynamic state is represented by the totality of macroscopic quantities of

a system. Usually, a small set of parameters is needed to fix the thermodynamic
6 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

state. For a homogenous fluid, the number of parameters needed to describe a

state is two: (P ,V ), (P , T ), or (V , T ).

1.6 Mayer’s Hypothesis

Mayer’s hypothesis proves that the internal energy, U , of an ideal gas is a function
only of its temperature. In the free expansion of an ideal gas, the temperature change
is ∆T = 0 and the work done is ∆W = 0. Since the gas performs no work on its
surroundings, the First Law of thermodynamics gives:

∆U = ∆Q − ∆W =⇒ ∆U = 0

If we consider U as a function of volume and temperature, U = U (V , T ):

   
∂U ∂U
dU = dT + dV
∂T V ∂V T

Since dT = 0 and dU = 0, we get:

   
∂U ∂U
dV = 0 =⇒ =0
∂V T ∂V T

Thus, U is not a function of V .

If we consider U as a function of pressure and temperature, U = U (P , T ):
   
∂U ∂U
dU = dT + dP
∂T P ∂P T

In free expansion, dT = 0 and dU = 0, so:

 
∂U
= 0 =⇒ U is not a function of P .
∂P T

Hence, the internal energy U of an ideal gas is a function solely of its temperature.

1.7 Isothermal Process

Isothermal Process
The thermodynamic process in which the pressure and volume of a system are
changed but the temperature remains constant throughout the process is called
an Isothermal Process.

In this process, the system is perfectly conducting to the surroundings. The system
can absorb heat from or give heat to the surroundings to maintain a constant tem-
perature. The equation for an isothermal process is PV = constant. Thus, it obeys
Boyle’s law.
1.7. Isothermal Process 7

Isothermal Process (PV = constant)

10

Pressure (P )
6

2
T1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Volume (V )

Figure 1.3: Isothermal curve representing PV = constant.

1.7.1 Work Done in an Isothermal Process for an Ideal Gas

A(Vi , Pi )
Pressure (P )

B(Vf , Pf )
T = constant

Vi Volume (V ) Vf

Using the ideal gas equation PV = nRT :

∫ Vf
W = P dV
Vi
∫ Vf
nRT
= dV
Vi V
dV
∫ Vf
= nRT
Vi V

Work Done in Isothermal Process

 
Vf
W = nRT ln
Vi
8 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

This represents the shaded area under the curve from A to B.

1.8 Microscopic Theory of an Ideal Gas

The kinetic theory of gases is based on the following assumptions:

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory

1. A gas consists of a very large number of identical particles called atoms or

molecules.

2. These atoms or molecules are in constant random motion and obey New-
ton’s laws of motion.

3. The total volume occupied by the molecules themselves is negligible com-

pared to the volume of the container.

4. No appreciable intermolecular forces act on the particles except during

collisions with other particles or the walls of the container.

5. All collisions are perfectly elastic, meaning kinetic energy is conserved.

1.8.1 Calculation of Pressure

We consider a particle of mass m and velocity v̄ = vx iˆ+ v y jˆ+ v z k̂ in a cubic box of side
L. When the particle collides with face 1, it rebounds with a velocity −vx . The change
of momentum is:

∆P = (−mvx ) − (mvx ) = −2mvx

By conservation of momentum, the momentum imparted to face 1 is 2mvx . The particle

travels to face 2 and back, covering a distance 2L. The round trip time is ∆t = 2L vx .
vx
Hence, the number of collisions with face 1 per unit time is 2L . The momentum imparted
to face 1 per unit time (which is the force felt by face 1) is:

vx mvx2
F = 2mvx · =
2L L
1.8. Microscopic Theory of an Ideal Gas 9

Face 2
Face 1

Figure 1.4: Cubic container containing an ideal gas

The pressure P felt by face 1 (area L 2 ) due to one particle is:

mv 2
F x
mv 2
P1 = = L2 = 3x
A L L
For all N particles in the box, the total pressure is:
m 2 2
P = (v + v2x + · · · + v N2 x )
L 3 1x !
2 + v2 + · · · + v2
mN v1x 2x Nx
= 3
L N

= ρvx2

Since motion is random, vx2 = v y2 = v z2 = 13 v 2 (where vr2ms = v 2 ). Thus:

Pressure of an Ideal Gas

1 1
P = ρv 2 = ρvr2ms
3 3

Relating this to kinetic energy:

1 M t ot al 2 1
P = v =⇒ PV = M t ot al v 2
3 V 3 
2 1 2
= M t ot al v
3 2
2
= (Total Translational K.E.)
3
Using the ideal gas equation PV = nRT :
2 3
(Total K.E.) = nRT =⇒ Total K.E. = nRT
3 2
10 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

Therefore, the average translational kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute

temperature T . Average translational K.E. per mole of a monoatomic ideal gas is 32 RT .

1.9 Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas

∆Q
The specific heat capacity is given by C = n∆T . We have two types of molar specific
heats for a gas: one at constant volume (CV ) and one at constant pressure (C P ). We
will show that C P − CV = R .

c(Pf ,Vi , Ti + ∆T )

CV

a(Pi ,Vi , Ti ) b(Pi ,Vf , Ti + ∆T )

CP
Ti + ∆T
Ti

Figure 1.5: P-V diagram illustrating paths for CV and C P .

Consider a monoatomic ideal gas at state a(Pi ,Vi , Ti ). Let us raise the temperature
to Ti + ∆T without changing the volume V (isochoric process), so the system reaches
state c(Pf ,Vi , Ti + ∆T ). The First Law gives:
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W =⇒ nCV ∆T = ∆U + 0
Because ∆W = P ∆V = P (0) = 0. Thus:
∆U = nCV ∆T (1.1)
Now, let us take the system from a to b (isobaric process). We raise the temperature
by ∆T while keeping the pressure P constant. The First Law gives:
nC P ∆T = ∆U + P ∆V (1.2)
For an ideal gas, the internal energy U depends only on temperature T . Since the
temperature change ∆T is the same for both paths, ∆U is the same. Substituting (1.1)
into (1.2):
nC P ∆T = nCV ∆T + P ∆V (1.3)
For the constant pressure path (a to b), the ideal gas law PV = nRT yields:
P ∆V + V ∆P = nR ∆T =⇒ P ∆V = nR ∆T (since ∆P = 0)
Substituting this into (1.3):
nC P ∆T = nCV ∆T + nR ∆T
=⇒ C P = CV + R
1.10. Adiabatic Process 11

Mayer’s Relation

C P − CV = R

Where R ≈ 8.31 J/(mol · K).

1.10 Adiabatic Process

Adiabatic Process
A thermodynamic process in which the pressure and volume of a system change,
but the system neither absorbs heat from the surroundings nor releases heat to
the surroundings (∆Q = 0), is called an adiabatic process.

The system is completely thermally isolated. Throughout the process, the rela-
tionship PV γ = constant holds true, where γ = C P /CV . It does not obey Boyle’s
law.

Isothermal (PV = const)

Adiabatic (PV γ = const)

Figure 1.6: P-V diagram comparing isothermal and adiabatic processes.

The adiabatic curve is steeper than the isothermal curve. We can derive PV γ =
const: From the First Law (∆Q = 0):

0 = ∆U + ∆W =⇒ ∆W = −∆U

Using ∆U = nCV dT and ∆W = P dV :

−P dV
nCV dT + P dV = 0 =⇒ dT = (1.4)
nCV

Differentiating the ideal gas law PV = nRT :

P dV + V dP = nR dT (1.5)
12 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics

Substitute dT from (1.4) into (1.5):

−P dV
 
P dV + V dP = nR
nCV
CV P dV + CV V dP = −P (C P − CV )dV (using R = C P − CV )
CV V dP + C P P dV = 0
Dividing by CV PV :
dP C P dV
 
+ =0
P CV V
dP dV
+γ =0
P ∫ V
dP dV
∫
+γ = constant
P V
ln P + γ lnV = constant
ln(PV ) = constant
γ

Adiabatic Equation of State

PV γ = constant

1.10.1 Work Done by an Ideal Gas in an Adiabatic Process

If the volume changes from Vi to Vf , the work done is:
∫ Vf ∫ Vf
K
W = P dV = γ
dV
Vi Vi V
∫ Vf
=K V −γ dV
Vi
V
V 1−γ f

=K
1 − γ Vi
K  1−γ 1−γ

= Vf − Vi
1−γ
γ γ
Since Pf Vf = Pi Vi = K :
1  γ 1−γ γ 1−γ

W = Pf Vf Vf − Pi Vi Vi
1−γ
1
= (Pf Vf − Pi Vi )
1−γ
Using PV = nRT :

Adiabatic Work Done

nR nR
W = (Tf − Ti ) = (Ti − Tf )
1−γ γ−1

Therefore, if work is done by the gas adiabatically (expansion), the temperature

decreases.
1.10. Adiabatic Process 13

Homework
1. What is a Carnot engine?

2. Explain the working principle of a Carnot engine.

3. Show that the efficiency of a machine that works as a Carnot engine is:
W Q1 − Q2 Q2
η= = =1− <1
Q1 Q1 Q1
14 Chapter 1. Heat and Thermodynamics
Chapter 2

Black Body Radiation

Black Body

A body which completely absorbs radiations of all wavelengths or all frequencies

incident on it is called a perfectly black body. Radiation emitted by such a body
is called black body radiation.

2.1 Emissive Power

Emissive power refers to the rate at which an object emits electromagnetic radiation,
typically in the form of light and heat. Emissive power (E ) is defined as the energy
emitted per unit area per unit time.

2.2 Experimental Results

The experimental spectral distribution of black body radiation is shown in Figure 2.1.
Note the curves for temperatures where T4 > T3 > T2 > T1 .

T4

T3
Emissive Power (E )

T2

T1

Wavelength (λ)

Figure 2.1: Spectral distribution of black body radiation at different temperatures.

Observations from the graph:

1. For higher temperatures, the emissive power (E ) is larger for all wavelengths.

15
16 Chapter 2. Black Body Radiation

2. The E vs. λ curve rises up to a peak at λ m and decreases for λ > λ m .

3. λ m · T = constant.

Em
4. T5
= constant, where E m is the maximum energy density.

2.3 Important Laws of Radiation

Wien’s Displacement Law

The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy of emission is inversely

proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitting body.
Let λ m be the wavelength corresponding to the maximum radiant energy and T
be the absolute temperature of the black body. According to Wien’s law:
1
λm ∝ =⇒ λ m · T = b
T
Where b is Wien’s displacement constant.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The total radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body per unit area per
second is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Let E be the emitted energy per unit area per second. Then:

E ∝ T 4 =⇒ E = σT 4

Where σ is Stefan’s constant.

Planck’s Law of Black Body Radiation

Planck’s law describes the spectral density of electromagnetic radiation emitted

by a black body in thermal equilibrium at a given temperature T :
8πhc 1
U (λ) = 5
· hc
λ e λkT − 1
In terms of frequency ν:

8πhν 3 1
U (ν) = 3
· hν
c e kT − 1
Where U is the energy density and hν is the quantum of energy.
2.3. Important Laws of Radiation 17

Eλ

Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Planck’s Law

Wien’s Law

Figure 2.2: Comparison of radiation laws.

Notice that at low λ, Wien’s law approximates Planck’s law well, but at high λ, they
diverge. Conversely, the Rayleigh-Jeans law works well at high λ but fails spectacularly
at low λ (the ”ultraviolet catastrophe”).

2.3.1 Deriving Wien’s Law from Planck’s Law

Start with Planck’s Law:
8πhc 1
U (λ) =
5
· hc
λ e λkT − 1
Let x = λkT . For small values of λ (high frequency), x becomes very large, so e x  1.
hc

Thus, e x − 1 ≈ e x .
8πhc 1 8πhc − hc
U (λ) ≈ 5
· hc = e λkT
λ e λkT λ5
This is the mathematical form of Wien’s Radiation Law.
To find the peak wavelength λ m , we differentiate Planck’s law with respect to λ and
set it to zero:
dU
=0
dλ
Let U (λ) = u. Taking the natural logarithm:
 hc 
ln u = ln(8πhc) − 5 ln λ − ln e λkT − 1

Differentiating both sides with respect to λ:

hc
 
1 du 5 e λkT · − λ 2hckT
· =− − =0
u dλ λ hc
e λkT − 1
Letting x = hc
λ m kT at the peak:
5 1 xex xex
− + = 0 =⇒ =5
λm λm e x − 1 ex − 1
The numerical solution to this transcendental equation is:
hc
x ≈ 4.9651 =⇒ ≈ 4.9651
λ m kT
18 Chapter 2. Black Body Radiation

hc
λ mT = = constant
4.9651k
This successfully derives Wien’s Displacement Law. (Planck’s constant, h = 6.626 ×
10−34 J · s).
Chapter 3

Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

3.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

If the periodic or oscillatory motion of a particle is such that its acceleration is directly
proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium position and is always directed
towards that equilibrium position, then its motion is known as Simple Harmonic Motion
(SHM).

θ Equilibrium
y
m
y

Figure 3.2: Mass-Spring System

Figure 3.1: Simple Pendulum

According to the definition, we can write:

F ∝ −y and a ∝ −y

Equating the deflecting force (external) to the restoring force:

F def = F rest
ma = −k y [using Newton’s 2nd law and Hooke’s law]
d2 y
m = −k y
dt 2
d2 y k
=− y
dt 2 m
Letting ω 2 = m:
k

Differential Equation of SHM

d2 y
+ ω2 y = 0
dt 2

19
20 Chapter 3. Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

The general solution to this differential equation is:

y (t ) = a sin(ωt + φ)

3.2 LC Circuit Oscillations

In an LC circuit, a capacitor of capacitance C and an inductor of inductance L are
connected with a battery through switches in the manner shown below.

K1

+
K2
i
C L
V
−

Figure 3.3: LC circuit diagram.

If Q is the charge on the capacitor at any instant t , then the voltage across the
capacitor equals the induced EMF across the inductor (ignoring resistance):

VC = VL
Q di
= −L
C dt
dQ
Since current is the rate of flow of charge, i = dt :

Q d2 Q
= −L 2
C dt
d2 Q Q
L 2 + =0
dt C
d2 Q 1
+ Q =0
dt 2 LC

This is identical in form to the SHM equation, where ω 2 = LC .

1
The period of oscillation
is:
2π √
T = = 2π LC
ω

3.3 Damped Harmonic Motion (DHM)

In a real system, resistive forces (like friction or air drag) act to dampen the motion.
The damping force is typically proportional to velocity:

F damp ∝ −v =⇒ F damp = −bv

where b is the damping coefficient. The total restoring force is:

F net = F rest + F damp

3.4. Forced or Driven Harmonic Motion (FHM) 21

ma = −k y − bv
d2 y dy
m +b +ky = 0
dt 2 dt
Dividing by m and letting b
m = 2λ (where λ is the damping factor) and k
m = ω2:

Damped Harmonic Motion Equation

d2 y dy
+ 2λ + ω2 y = 0
dt 2 dt

The nature of the solution depends on the relative values of λ and ω:

1. Underdamped (λ < ω): The system oscillates with a gradually decreasing√ ampli-
tude. The solution is of the form y = a 0 e −λt sin(νt − δ), where ν = ω 2 − λ 2 is
the damped angular frequency.

2. Critically Damped (λ = ω): The system returns to equilibrium as fast as possible

without oscillating.

3. Overdamped (λ > ω): The system slowly returns to equilibrium without oscillat-
ing.

y (t )

a 0 e −λt
t

Figure 3.4: Underdamped harmonic motion.

d2 y
Homework Proof: Prove that y = a 0 e −λt sin(νt ) is a solution to dt 2
+2λ dy 2
dt +ω y = 0.

3.4 Forced or Driven Harmonic Motion (FHM)

When an external periodic force Fapp = F0 sin(pt ) is applied to the damped oscillator:

F net = F rest + F damp + Fapp

d2 y dy
m = −k y − b + F 0 sin(pt )
dt 2 dt
Dividing by m and rearranging:
d2 y dy
+ 2λ + ω 2 y = f0 sin(pt )
dt 2 dt
22 Chapter 3. Simple Harmonic Motion and Waves

Where f0 = Fm0 .
The complete solution consists of a complementary function (the transient solution,
identical to DHM) and a particular integral (the steady-state solution).

y = y comp + y part

y (t ) = a 0 e −λt sin(νt − δ) + A sin(pt − θ)

Where A is the steady-state amplitude and θ is the phase difference between the
applied force and the displacement.
Chapter 4

Wave Motion

Wave Motion
Wave motion is the propagation of disturbances (oscillations) through a medium
or vacuum that transfers energy or momentum from one point to another without
the permanent transfer of matter.

Waves

Mechanical Non-mechanical
Waves (Electromagnetic)

Based on vibration Based on energy

of particles transfer

Transverse Longitudinal Standing Progressive

Waves Waves Waves Waves

4.1 Equation of a Simple Harmonic Traveling Wave

Consider a particle A in a medium oscillating with simple harmonic motion: y =

a sin(ωt ). Let the wave travel to the right with velocity v . A particle B, located at
a distance x from A, will receive the disturbance after a time delay t 0 = vx . The
displacement
of particle B at time t is the same as the displacement of A at an earlier
time t − v :
x

h  x i
y = a sin ω t −
v
 ω 
y = a sin ωt − x
v

Using the relations ω = 2π

T and v = λ
T , we define the wave number k = 2π
λ = ωv .

23
24 Chapter 4. Wave Motion

Equation of a Traveling Wave

y = a sin(ωt − k x ) (traveling in +x direction)

4.2 Differential Equation of a Traveling Wave

Starting with y = a sin(ωt − k x ), compute the partial derivatives:

∂y
= ωa cos(ωt − k x )
∂t

∂2y
= −ω 2 a sin(ωt − k x ) . . . (1)
∂t 2
Now differentiate with respect to x :

∂y
= −k a cos(ωt − k x )
∂x

∂2y
= −k 2 a sin(ωt − k x ) . . . (2)
∂x 2
Dividing (1) by (2):
∂2y 2π 2

 2
∂t 2 ω2 T λ
= 2 = = = v2
∂2y k 2π 2 T


∂x 2 λ

Wave Equation

∂2y 1 ∂2y
=
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

This is the fundamental linear differential equation of the traveling wave.

4.3 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

Phase Velocity (vp )

The velocity at which a specific phase of the wave (like a crest or trough) propa-
gates through the medium. For a wave y = a sin(ωt − k x ), the phase is constant
when ωt − k x = constant. Differentiating with respect to t : ω − k dx dt = 0 =⇒
vp = ωk .

Group Velocity (vg )

The speed at which the overall envelope or shape of a wave packet (a group of
waves) propagates. It is the velocity at which energy or information travels.
4.4. Superposition: Standing Waves and Beats 25

Suppose two waves with slightly different frequencies and wave numbers interfere:

y 1 = a sin(ω1 t − k 1 x )
y 2 = a sin(ω2 t − k 2 x )

Using the sum-to-product trigonometric identity:

 
∆ω ∆k
y = y 1 + y 2 = 2a cos x sin ω̄t − k̄ x


t−
2 2

where ∆ω = ω1 − ω2 , ∆k = k 1 − k 2 , and ω̄, k̄ are the averages.

The term 2a cos ∆ω
2 t − ∆k
2 x acts as a slowly varying envelope (modulation factor).
The velocity of this envelope is the group velocity:

∆ω limit dω
vg = −−−→
∆k dk

Relationship between vg and vp : Since ω = k vp :

d dvp
vg = (k vp ) = vp + k
dk dk

Also, since k = λ :
2π
dk = − 2π
λ2
dλ:

dvp
vg = vp − λ
dλ

4.4 Superposition: Standing Waves and Beats

4.4.1 Standing Waves
When two simple harmonic waves of the same amplitude and frequency traveling in
opposite directions superimpose:

y 1 = a sin(ωt − k x ) (traveling right)

y 2 = a sin(ωt + k x ) (traveling left)

y = y 1 + y 2 = a[sin(ωt − k x ) + sin(ωt + k x )]

y = [2a cos(k x )] sin(ωt )

This represents a standing wave. The amplitude A(x ) = 2a cos(k x ) depends on posi-
tion.

• Antinodes (maximum amplitude): cos(k x ) = ±1 =⇒ k x = nπ =⇒ x = nλ

2
(n = 0, 1, 2 . . . )

• Nodes (zero amplitude): cos(k x ) = 0 =⇒ k x = (2n + 1) π2 =⇒ x = (2n + 1) λ4

The separation between adjacent nodes (or adjacent antinodes) is λ/2. The distance
between a node and an adjacent antinode is λ/4.
26 Chapter 4. Wave Motion

4.4.2 Beats
When two waves of slightly different frequencies n 1 and n 2 traveling in the same
direction superimpose at a point:

y 1 = a sin(2πn 1 t )
y 2 = a sin(2πn 2 t )

Assuming equal amplitude a, their sum produces a wave whose amplitude fluctuates
over time. The time between two consecutive maxima (beats) is |n 1 −n
1
2|
. The number
of beats per unit time (beat frequency) is:

fbeat = |n 1 − n 2 |
Chapter 5

Fourier Series

Fourier Series
Any well-behaved periodic function f (t ) with period T can be expressed as an
infinite sum of sine and cosine functions:
∞   Õ ∞  
2nπ 2nπ
a n cos b n sin
Õ
f (t ) = a 0 + t + t
n=1
T n=1
T

The coefficients a 0, a n , b n are called the Fourier coefficients.

5.1 Fourier Coefficients

The coefficients are calculated by integrating over one full period:
∫ T
1
a0 = f (t ) dt (Average DC value)
T 0
∫ T  
2 2nπ
an = f (t ) cos t dt
T 0 T
∫ T  
2 2nπ
bn = f (t ) sin t dt
T 0 T

5.2 Example: Square Wave

Find the Fourier series for a square wave f (x ) with period 2π defined as:
(
−1 for − π < x < 0
f (x ) =
1 for 0 < x < π

Solution: First, notice that f (−x ) = −f (x ), which means the function is odd. For
an odd function, the average value a 0 = 0, and all cosine coefficients a n = 0. We only
need to calculate the sine coefficients b n .
The formula for b n on the interval [−π, π] is:
∫ π
1
bn = f (x ) sin(nx ) dx
π −π

27
28 Chapter 5. Fourier Series

Since f (x ) sin(nx ) is the product of two odd functions, it is an even function. We can
simplify the integral by evaluating from 0 to π and doubling it:
∫ π
2
bn = (1) sin(nx ) dx
π 0
cos(nx ) π
 
2
= −
π n 0
2
= [1 − cos(nπ)]
nπ
Evaluating for different values of n:

• If n is even: cos(nπ) = 1, so b n = 2
nπ (1 − 1) = 0.

• If n is odd: cos(nπ) = −1, so b n = 2

nπ (1 − (−1)) = nπ .
4

Thus, the non-zero coefficients are for n = 1, 3, 5, 7 . . .

Fourier Series of the Square Wave

 
4 1 1
f (x ) = sin(x ) + sin(3x ) + sin(5x ) + . . .
π 3 5
∞
4
sin(nx )
Õ
=
n=1,3,5...
nπ
Chapter 6

Practice Problems

Comprehensive Problem Set

1. (a) Explain how mass is defined. State and explain Newton’s second law
of motion in two alternate formats.
(b) Find the final speeds of two particles of mass m 1 and m 2 when the
particle m 1 hits the stationary target m 2 (elastic collision).

2. (a) Show that in uniform circular motion the centripetal acceleration is

2
a = vr .
(b) A woman rides a wheel of radius 15 m, completing five turns about
its horizontal axis every minute. What are:
(i) the period of the motion,
(ii) the magnitude and (iii) direction of the centripetal acceleration
at the highest point,
(iv) the magnitude and (v) direction of the centripetal acceleration at
the lowest point?

3. (a) Define torque, rotational inertia, and angular momentum.

(b) Find the relation between torque and angular momentum, and explain
the theorem of conservation of angular momentum.
(c) Derive Newton’s second law of motion for rotation.
(d) Find the rotational inertia of a loop about its central axis.

4. (a) Find the relation between force and potential energy.

(b) Prove that in an isolated system, the total mechanical energy remains
unchanged.
(c) Write down the differential equation of motion for a damped harmonic
oscillation. For a mass m = 1 kg, damping coefficient b = 3 kg/s, and
spring constant k = 20 N/m:
(i) Determine whether the motion is underdamped, critically
damped, or overdamped.
(ii) Calculate the damped angular frequency, ωd .

5. (a) State Newton’s law of gravitation and define gravitational potential

energy.

29
30 Chapter 6. Practice Problems

(b) Derive the expression for gravitational potential energy due to a

uniform spherical shell at an external point.
(c) Calculate the escape velocity of a projectile launched from the Earth’s
surface.

6. (a) State Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion.

(b) Using Newtonian mechanics, derive Kepler’s third law relating the
orbital period and radius of a circular orbit.
(c) Define a central force. Show that the motion of a particle under a
central force is confined to a plane.

7. (a) What is a projectile?

(b) Show that the path of a projectile is a parabola.
(c) In the case of a projectile, find the expression for (i) maximum height,
(ii) maximum horizontal range.
(d) What must be the angle of projection of a particle so that its horizontal
range becomes equal to its maximum height?