Basic Instruments

Standard process signals

Industrial processes use standards for the measurement and control signals used throughout all
industries. The signals used in industrial instrumentation are unique. Processes are referred to or
measured as 0% to 100% of the process range. These signals also typically employee a live zero for 0%
of process measurement.

A live zero gives insight as to if the process loop is functioning within given parameters or if the control
loop is open or malfunctioning. If the loop is functioning in a proper manor, the signal will indicate a
measurement greater than zero for 0% percent of process. There is also a measurement greater than
zero for 100% percent of the process. For example if the process was using a signal of 3 PSI to 15 PSI,
the range of the process is 3 to 15 PSI.

In the representation of the process, 3 PSI represents 0% of the process and 15 PSI represents 100% of
the process. The span of the process is 12 PSI. The span is where the process takes place in a range of
measurement.

Upper Range Value (URV) – Lower Range Value (LRV) = Span

SPAN
-25% 0% 100%

0 psi 3 psi 15 psi

It can be seen from the chart above that if the process signal equaled 0 PSI or –25%, the loop is open
or malfunctioning. This is a great advantage in industrial measurement for the troubleshooting of the
process loop and identification and elimination of elements that are not associated with the source of the
problem.

The chart below shows some of the various standard signals used for industrial instrumentation.

Measurement Sensor PV / MV PV / MV
mV (millivolts) 0 -100 0-100
V (volts) 0-10 1-5 0-10
mA (milliamperes) 20 4-20 10-50
in H20 0-100
PSI 3-15 6-30
kPa 20-100

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Constant voltage and constant current signals

Industrial electrical control signals are typically constant current or constant voltage. These signals obey
ohm’s law but are not the same as a resister connected in series or parallel with the voltage supply.
Ohm’s Law E = I x R

With a constant current control device one or more resistive loads may be connected in series with
the control device. The current flowing through the circuit will remain at a constant value of current
even if the resistance of one or more of the resistive loads is varied at any period of time or frequency.
Ohm’s law still applies to this type of circuit. The voltage supply of the circuit must be equal to or
greater than the sum of all maximum resistances in the circuit in ohms multiplied by the maximum
current of the circuit in amperes.

[20mA x (Rwire + Rdevice1 + Rdevice2 + Rn…] ≤ Vs (power supply voltage)

250
1% Precision
Wire

- + - +
Constant +
Current + Power
Control PV 4-20mA Supply
Device - - +24 VDC
+ - + -

Current
Meter 250
1% Precision

Notice the 1% precision resistors. The resistor will produce a 1-5 volt signal for the recorder and
controller to read as input. (4mA x 250Ω = 1v, 20mA x 250Ω = 5v)

With a constant voltage control device one or more resistive loads may be connected in parallel with
the control device. The applied voltage across the resistances throughout the circuit will remain at a
constant value of voltage even if the resistance of one or more of the resistive loads is varied at any
period of time or frequency. Ohm’s law still applies to this type of circuit. The voltage supply of the
circuit must be equal to or greater than the sum of all maximum resistances in the circuit in ohms
multiplied by the maximum current of the circuit in amperes.

[20mA x {1/(1/Rwire +1/Rdevice1 + 1/Rdevice2 + 1/Rn…)}] ≤ Vs (power supply voltage)

Wire
Wire Wire
Wire

++ ++ -- ++ -- ++
++ ++ Constant
Constant
Current
Current ++ Power
Power
1-5V
1-5V PV
PV Control Supply
Supply
-- Control --
-- -- Device
Device +24
+24 VDC
VDC
--
Volt
Volt Device
Device ++ -- ++ --
Meter
Meter Wire
Wire Wire
Wire

Notice the devices and the voltmeter are in parallel. The transmitter is sending a low power output
constant voltage signal typically 1-5 volt. Notice the wire resistance. The devices must be kept close as
possible not to produce significant error due to voltage drop.

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Static equilibrium in instrument measurements

Most industrial instrument measuring devices use static equilibrium to measure the error in the process.
The error is the difference between the setpoint (SP), the desired value of the process, and the process
variable (PV), the actual value of the process.

The sum of forces must equal zero to be in static equilibrium (ΣF = 0). Most mechanical instruments
can be thought of as a balance beam.

F1 – F2 = 0 F1 – F2 ≠ 0
Static equilibrium – no error An error exists in the process

F1 represents the setpoint (SP) and F2 represents the process variable (PV). When the sum of the
setpoint and the process variables equal zero (SP – PV = 0), the measuring instrument is in static
equilibrium. This applies to the controller as well. When the error is zero SP – PV = E (error), the process
is said to be at steady state. It is exactly where it should be, but in the real world this is extremely hard
to achieve. There are constantly disturbances on the system and this is why constant monitoring of the
process needed. With constant monitoring and correction of the process, the process can be regulated
with extremely little or negligible error. The desired process value will be exactly what it should be within
the tolerances of the system and it’s components.

Open and closed systems

Industrial processes use tanks, device and instruments that are referred to as open and closed systems.
These are not to be confused with open and closed control loops.

The following examples illustrate the application of open and closed systems. Take a look at the open
systems first, then the closed system. Both level transmitters are in static equilibrium when the tanks are
empty. The same applies to flow transmitters. We can measure the unbalanced pressure when a fluid is
flowing in the pipes or a level exists in the tanks. This method reveals the energy in the system, stored
or kinetic.

ONLY THE (HEAD) PRESSURE IS MEASURED IN THE TANKS USING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

CLOSED TO OPEN TO
ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE
30 PSI–30 PSI = 0 ∆P = 0
∆P = 0

∆ (HEAD) PRESSURE IS USED FOR FLOW RATE AND STATIC PRESSURE USING STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

∆P = THE SQUARE OF ∆P = THE PROCESS

CLOSED SYSTEMS OPEN SYSTEMS

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